今晨听着NPR的一个老节目录音“African Dance Party: Celebrating a Continent" (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106918614 ), 勾起我一个长期未能解决的问题.
记得这里咖啡客中有读过不少人类学书的,不揣冒昧,请教一下。当然也不敢奢望得到详细的指点。
我以为非洲对世界音乐最大的贡献乃在于其丰富的节奏。其影响广至于爵士、拉美,流行, 以至Igor Stravinsky. 相形之下,美洲印第安人的节奏则似乎显得单调.中国民间曲调以及锣鼓也相形逊色。(美国的爵士乐人或教授常批评中国人的节奏感差,几个爵士拍子之后就数不过来了.)
那么非洲人的节奏感是从何而来?
诸位可曾见到过从人类学角度探究这个问题的论述?谢在前头! (万一想不起来也没关系,也不是什么当务之急.)
- posted on 02/23/2010
这是个有趣问题,应当属于民族音乐学(ethnomusicology)的领域。就我所知,还是个无解的问题。历史上很多事情事出有因,但从解释角度讲似乎纯属偶然。;)
更细致的研究,比如确定特定音乐节奏的演变传播,会有帮助。
人类祖先的非洲三*布希曼人说话有独特的click音,我怀疑这和非洲人擅长的音乐切分有联系。如果别人没有指出这一点的话,也算是我的小贡献。;)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c246fZ-7z1w
节奏大体上是肉体的,旋律大体上是灵魂心智的。这是我一直强调的。 - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/23/2010
节奏似乎是音乐中最基本,最简单的东西,许多动物都有节奏感。旋律要复杂一些,它已经包含了节奏,但又不仅是节奏。许多人记不住旋律,但还是能够随着节奏打拍子踮脚什么的。当然,也有复杂的节奏,但有些人连简单的节奏都把握不住。我们汉族人似乎节奏感不强,也可能是多少世纪以来让儒家的中规中矩给套住了。 - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/23/2010
非洲人是上帝第一批造出来的。上帝要求子民载歌载舞崇拜他/她,所以给与了非洲人音乐感 :-)。
美洲印第安人的乐感的确非常单调,我也纳闷过。唱起来就是'weiyaya weiyaya", 跳舞也就是上下蹦蹦,左右摆摆。如果按照音乐舞蹈结构的复杂性来区分高低,那印第安人还真是落后。
- posted on 02/23/2010
touche wrote:
人类祖先的非洲三*布希曼人说话有独特的click音,我怀疑这和非洲人擅长的音乐切分有联系。如果别人没有指出这一点的话,也算是我的小贡献。;)
很有意思. 使我想到曾经看的一部电影"The Gods Must Be Crazy". 其中非洲人讲话确实也尽是喉结里发出独特的staccato.
突然又想起来,非洲许多部落用鼓声传递信息(想象是近乎Morse电码或者更高级语义的东西). [传说一个美国传教士听到一夜鼓声,第二天从土著那里听到林肯被刺的消息.未详真假.]
这样高级的用鼓,也许也促进了对新节奏的发现.
节奏大体上是肉体的,旋律大体上是灵魂心智的。这是我一直强调的。
至善之言."春之祭"就是肉体的.
其他几位说的也很有启发.一并谢过.
至少我找书刊来看不会完全漫无目标了. - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/23/2010
那么非洲人的节奏感是从何而来?
非洲人做爱比其他民族勤快,就这么简单。
节奏大体上是肉体的
touche讲到点上。
一个人要是做爱都没节奏,怎么可能有乐感节奏感,怎么能感受舞蹈? - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/23/2010
难道native americans 做爱没有节奏?
看动物电影,灵长类做爱也很有节奏。日常生活中,狗也不差:-) - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/23/2010
我是说他们可能更勤快,跟身体的构造可能很有关系:)
另外,我发现混血的民族比不混血的节奏感强,荒蛮地区比文明地区也强....
fanghuzhai wrote:
难道native americans 做爱没有节奏?
看动物电影,灵长类做爱也很有节奏。日常生活中,狗也不差:-) - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/23/2010
如果一定要把节奏和作爱联系的话,无论是每星期六晚上十一点半、或是每分钟六十次,这种的节奏都是相当无趣的。人总该比动物机械性的本能更多些创造性。:-) - posted on 02/23/2010
那么非洲人的节奏感是从何而来?非洲人做爱比其他民族勤快,就这么简单。
寥康讲到点上。
一个人要是做爱都没节奏,怎么可能有乐感节奏感,怎么能感受舞蹈?
No wonder "Le Sacre du Printemps" caused such a scandal.
引进弗洛伊德,讨论就上了一个新的层次, ...,千万不要忘记弗洛伊德。
这个想法和gz 的抗议其实应该没有本质的冲突。一个事情做多了,也许就不满足于简单重复,于是就有了新的花样,然后发现新的节奏。。。Let's not go further.
展开这个研究太难了。要很多很多的委员会审批,human subjects committee, ethics committee, legal issues committee, ...,
一般动物我不认为会有很丰富的节奏,但是我认识的动物当然是太少了,。。。
也是一个很困难的研究,也要有很多委员会审批。
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/24/2010
I do not think you can make love to the drum of young pioneers - posted on 02/24/2010
有意思的问题。
廖康说的,节奏是音乐中最基本的,最简单的。也许是吧。我带孩子上 mommy & me 的音乐课,几个月大的孩子,首先学的是敲鼓。孩子都坐在一张大鼓四周,老师跟着音乐敲打着鼓,孩子们摸着鼓,感受着节奏。课上的主要活动就是拿着打击乐器跟着节拍敲敲打打,或家长一起跳舞。
不过我的节奏感很差很差,弹琴多年,总是掌握不好节奏,考试的时候也是节奏一复杂了我就懵了,旋律、和声什么的,我都没问题。难道我学了太多的乐理,反而远离了最基本、最简单的音乐元素?
非洲中、西部的音乐,节奏好像很复杂,其实是因为用的是 polyrhythm 和 polymeter,就是不同演奏者用不同的节奏、节拍来演奏。我想可能是他们的音乐多是以舞蹈为主的、即兴的、部落的集体创作,而不是一个人的作品,所以衍变成今天这样的复节奏、复拍子的音乐。爵士乐也是,即兴的,集体创作的,所以节奏和节拍都复杂。
大概我幼年接触太多西方的古典音乐,对其它的音乐没有分辨力。 - posted on 02/24/2010
很有教益,专家多了。
Musical structure
In Africa it is unrealistic to separate music from dance or from bodily movement. In Europe the body tends to be used as a single block, while in African and Afro-American dance it seems to be “polycentric”—that is, split into several independent body areas or “centres.” Likewise, the playing of African musical instruments involves a whole combination of body movements. This is one reason African music is less amenable to notation than Western music; for analytical purposes, sound filming (rather than just sound recording) is essential.
In Africa music making is very often collective, involving organized collaboration in which performers contribute not identical, but complementary, constituents. Besides polyrhythmic and polymetric procedures, melodic phrases are frequently offset against one another, with different starting and ending points, either in an antiphonal “call-and-response” relationship or in an overlapping relationship that yields polyphony. In addition, melodic phrasing and instrumental accompaniment may be deliberately out of step—a displacement technique described in 1952 by American anthropologist Richard Waterman as “offbeat phrasing of melodic accents.” Complementary participation is also evident in drumming and in flute or trumpet ensembles where each player in turn sounds a different, single note. The Ghanaian musicologist J.H. Kwabena Nketia pointed out the function of this African form of hocket technique in “achieving overall effects of continuity, [and] for building up interlocking, and sometimes complex structures, out of relatively simple elements.”
Timing
In a great many African music and dance cultures, movement organization rigidly follows certain principles of timing that cannot be equated with Western metrical systems. African systems of timing are generally based on at least four fundamental concepts:
1. There is an overall presence of a mental background pulsation, or “metronome sense,” consisting of equally spaced pulse units continuing ad infinitum and often at great speed. These so-called elementary pulses serve as a basic orientation screen; they are two or three times faster than the beat rate, or gross pulse.
2. Musical form is organized so that recurring patterns and themes are timed against a regular number of elementary pulses—usually 8, 12, 16, 24, or their multiples (more rarely, 9, 18, or 27). The recurring sequences are called strophes or cycles; the number of pulses they contain are referred to as their form numbers or cycle numbers.
3. Such strophes or cycles are often divisible in more than one way, allowing simultaneous combinations of contradictory metrical units. For example, 12 pulses—12 is the most important form number in African music—can be divided by 2, 3, 4, and 6.
4. Patterns with the same form number can be shifted out of phase, so that their starting points and main accents do not coincide, resulting in “cross rhythms.” In some cases they cross in such a way that they interlock, or fall between one another, with no two notes ever sounding together.
Interlocking
Interlocking techniques are a prominent feature of many instrumental styles in East and southeastern Africa. From regions in Tanzania and Mozambique come the ng'oma drumming of Gogo women and such log xylophone styles as the dimbila of the Makonde, the mangwilo of the Shirima, and the mangolongondo of the Yao people. The drumming in the ngwayi dance of northeastern Zambia, the timbrh lamellaphone music of the Vute people of central Cameroon, and many other traditions also use interlocking techniques.
A basic characteristic of interlocking is the absence of a common guide pulse to be taken as a reference point by all players. In a Western music ensemble or a jazz band all the players share a “beat,” one common metric point of departure. They may even beat their feet to mark it. While there are many traditional African musics in which such a common reference pulse does exist, in several others the musicians in a group relate their parts to individual reference pulses, which can stand in various relations to one another.
In one type of relation the pulse of one performer or group of performers falls exactly in the middle of the other's pulse. This type of interlocking occurs, for example, in the music of the amadinda and embaire xylophones of southern Uganda. A special type of notation is now used for these xylophones, consisting of numbers and periods. A number indicates that a player strikes a note; the number refers to the note in the scale, as 5, for example, the fifth note of the scale. An underlined number should be read an octave down; in other words, 5 is an octave below 5. A period indicates that no note is struck. Numbers and periods both occupy one elementary pulse.
The following is an example of interlocking as played on the amadinda. The melodies are actually played in parallel octaves; that is, each melody is played at the notated pitch and also at the pitch an octave below:
Special Comp
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In interlocking music of this type, one musician's positive action of striking a note always coincides with a negative action, or “non-strike,” of his fellow musician, who at that moment lifts his beater. The effect is such that both series of equally spaced notes seem to interlock like the teeth of a cogwheel. Each of the two musicians, however, feels his own series of notes as “on beat.”
In the very fast mangwilo xylophone music, the interlocking technique is exploited further. In some compositions by two virtuoso players, each musician interlocks with the right hand only. The left hands play different rhythm patterns superimposed over the interlocking pattern.
Triple interlocking is another type, used, for instance, in Zambia in drum music and also in southern Uganda in the music of the akadinda xylophone. Here a group of three musicians plays a short pattern of equally spaced notes in parallel octaves. Three musicians sitting opposite them interlock with another pattern that fits two equally spaced notes between each note of the first group's pattern. In numerical notation it looks like this:
Special Comp
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Interlocking techniques allow African instrumentalists to produce resultant patterns—overall patterns formed by all the players—that are unbelievably rapid. The resultant pattern of the above akadinda musical example is: 214435214235114135214535. This series of 24 notes, when played by expert musicians, is at a speed of approximately 600 notes per minute. But each musician, for himself, plays one-third that fast.
Time-line patterns
In certain areas there is yet another principle of timing, known as time-line patterns. These are struck motional patterns that make up a rhythmic ostinato with an asymmetrical inner structure (such as 5 + 7 or 7 + 9), against which the melodic and rhythmic phrasing of other performers is juxtaposed. They are percussive patterns, produced either by hand clapping or on some musical instrument of penetrating sound quality, such as a bell, a high-pitched drum, the rim or body of a drum, a bottle, an ax blade, a calabash, a percussion beam, concussion sticks, or a high-pitched xylophone key. Time-line patterns are a regulative element in many kinds of African music, especially dance music along the West African coast, in western central Africa, and in a broad belt along the Zambezi River valley from Zambia into Mozambique. Broadly speaking, they are found in those parts of Africa covered by the Kwa and Benue-Congo subgroups of the Niger-Congo group of languages—with the notable exception that they are not found in most areas of East Africa or in South Africa.
A time-line pattern represents the structural core of a musical piece, something like a condensed and extremely concentrated representation of the rhythmic and motional possibilities open to the musicians and dancers. Singers, drummers, and dancers in the group find their bearings by listening to the strokes of the time-line pattern, which is repeated at a steady tempo throughout the performance. The following are some of the most important time-line patterns:
1. The 12-pulse seven-stroke pattern
*
Version a (mainly West African)
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*
Version b (mainly central African)
Special Comp
Distribution: mostly along the West African coast—for example, in the music of the Yoruba, Fon, and Ewe—but also in Congo (Kinshasa), Angola, and Zambia.
2. The 12-pulse five-stroke pattern
Special Comp
Distribution: central Africa, especially in Congo (Brazzaville) and Congo (Kinshasa); southern Africa, including Zambia and Malaŵi; West Africa—for instance, among the Baule of Côte d'Ivoire.
3. A 16-pulse time-line pattern
Special Comp
Distribution: mostly southern Congo (Kinshasa), Angola, and northwestern Zambia; an isolated occurrence in xylophone music on the Kenya coast.
The longest time-line pattern is found among the pygmy people of the upper Sangha River in the Central African Republic. It is a 24-pulse pattern of the following structure:
Special Comp
This pattern is struck on a percussion beam, and the dance style accompanying it emphasizes motions of the pelvis.
The asymmetrical time-line patterns of African music are, no doubt, an ancient cultural heritage along the Guinea Coast and in western central Africa. They were most likely invented by peoples who spoke ancestral forms of Niger-Congo languages. It is likely that the area of origin was the Guinea Coast. One explanation for the absence of time-line patterns in the northern half of East Africa is that they were unknown among the first wave of Bantu-language speakers moving eastward from the Cross River area in eastern Nigeria along the fringes of the equatorial forest toward the East African lakes region circa 100–400 BC. Another explanation could be the influence in East Africa of Nilotic cultures. The knowledge of time-line patterns might have been brought to western central Africa with a second migration of Benue-Congo speakers from eastern Nigeria during the Early Iron Age, a time when time-line patterns had already spread eastward across the Niger River. This second migration could have been responsible for the introduction into western central Africa of a set of cultural traits that include asymmetrical time-line patterns, the single and double bells, masked dancing, secret societies, and certain initiation ceremonies.
With the beginning of the Later Iron Age in central Africa (c. AD 1000), a second nuclear area for time-line patterns apparently developed in southern Congo (Kinshasa); both the 12- and 16-pulse patterns still play an enormous role in the musical traditions of that region. With the third Bantu dispersal, this time from southern Congo and carrying with it trade connections, the practice of time-line patterns could have reached the Zambezi valley and the Nyasa-Ruvuma culture area of Tanzania, Malaŵi, and Mozambique—the only areas in the eastern part of the continent where time-line patterns are prominent today.
Inherent note patterns
Closely associated with interlocking techniques but not necessarily depending on them is the composition of inherent note patterns. These are rhythmic and melodic patterns that emerge when series of notes in distinct intervals are played at high speed.
The human ear perceives not isolated particles of sound but a “gestalt.” When sequences of many notes are played rapidly, the ear cannot follow each note. As a result, the hearing tends to pick out and regroup the material, forming several melodic-rhythmic patterns that seem independent of one another. Thus, the heard image of the music differs from the pattern of notes actually played. In a series of notes that are large intervals apart, for example, the ear picks out the notes of about the same pitch level and perceives them as a group. This psychological perception of a gestalt—an inherent note pattern—is an important element in listening to and composing some kinds of African instrumental music, particularly in central and East Africa.
Inherent note patterns are not accidental or coincidental; they are recognized and consciously employed by African musicians. In southern Uganda there are even specific terms referring to them. The main function of inherent note patterns is to suggest words—text passages of a song that is outlined by instrumental accompaniment. Thus, in the music of the ennanga harp of Uganda, the inherent note patterns suggest certain phrases of the vocal part. In a performance of the traditional harp song "Olutalo olw'e Nsinsi" (“The Battle of the Nsinsi”) by the former court musician Evaristo Muyinda, one inherent pattern seemed to speak the words “Batulwanako ab'edda!” (“How They Forget Those Ancients!”) long before they were actually sung. Muyinda often introduces a new phrase of text by first accentuating the corresponding inherent rhythm on the ennanga. Once the melody is firmly established as a gestalt, it is sung. By slight accentuation or melodic variation during performance, the harpist may bring one or another of the already existing inherent patterns into prominence. This results in a musical development of the song's text.
Tone systems and multipart patterns
Tone systems and multipart patterns have a functional interrelationship in African music. In other words, the kind of multipart pattern occurring in singing or instrumental music is conditional on the type of tone system, and vice versa.
The tonal material used in African musical traditions varies considerably from region to region. Tonal organization, tuning procedures, and intervallic structure depend upon a broad range of human experience. Several factors have determined the shape of tone systems actually in use. One factor mentioned above (see Musical instruments) is language, especially with regard to the semantic and grammatical importance of speech tone. Another is the principle of equidistance, the measuring of space or time in equal steps. In addition, in some cross-perceptual associations, such as from aural to visual and vice versa, pitch may be graded in terms of magnitude or altitude. In African music different pitches are not conceptualized as “high” or “low,” as they are in English and some other Germanic languages of Europe, but as “small” and “big” or “tiny” and “fat.” Consequently, a lamellaphone of middle size, producing middle-range notes, is called endongo in Lusoga, a Bantu language spoken in an area of Uganda east of the former kingdom of Buganda. Kadongo (with the diminutive prefix ka-) is a high-tuned lamellaphone, while gadongo (with the augmentative prefix ga-) is a bass instrument. Finally, tonal structure may be influenced by the human experience of sound in nature and the discovery of acoustics.
Broadly speaking, African tone systems may be divided into the following families and subfamilies: (1) equi-tonal systems, based on the principle of equal intervals, (2) monophonic systems, based on octaves, fifths, and fourths, and (3) systems based on the experience of instrumental harmonics.
Equi-tonal systems
Two varieties are found: (1) equi-pentatonic (for example, in southern Uganda) and (2) equi-heptatonic (for example, in the lower Zambezi valley and in eastern Angola). These tone systems, with either five or seven notes per octave, differ radically from the two Western equal-interval scales, namely the chromatic scale of 12 semitones to the octave (which is equi-dodecatonic) and the whole-tone scale (which is equi-hexatonic). Each step in the whole-tone scale involves an interval of 200 cents (a cent is a measure of frequency, with each semitone in the Western scale equal to 100 cents). In equi-pentatonic systems, on the other hand, the recurrent interval is theoretically 240 cents (i.e., 2.4 semitones of the Western scale), and in equi-heptatonic systems it is 171 cents (or 1.71 semitones).
In practice, the intervals in African equi-tonal systems are only approximately equal. For example, there is evidence that the tonal basis of music in southern Uganda, although equi-pentatonic in principle, accommodates a relatively wide deviation from the ideal equidistant interval of 240 cents. The term pen-equidistant has been coined for such a system. The cause of deviation is the presence in the music of that region of certain consonance principles, based on the recognition of simple ratios of fourths and fifths. Thus, the southern Ugandan tone system seems to have two disparate roots, accommodating both the principle of equidistance and the experience of simple ratios. In particular, the natural fourth is the only interval (besides octaves) recognized as consonant; it is therefore used extensively as “harmonic filler” in the interlocking-composition method of that region. No simultaneous fourths occur, and yet the semblance of a fourth-, fifth-, and octave-based “harmony” is established by durational overlapping of the notes struck. Consequently, seconds (240 cents), in contrast to fourths (480 cents), are avoided to a great extent in interlocking composition.
Similarly, in equi-heptatonic systems the desire for harmonic sound may dictate constant adjustments of intonation away from the theoretical interval of 171 cents. One of the most impressive areas in Africa in which a pen-equidistant heptatonic scale is combined with a distinctively harmonic style based on singing in intervals of thirds plus fifths, or thirds plus fourths, is the eastern Angolan culture area. This music is heptatonic and non-modal; i.e., there is no concept of major or minor thirds as distinctive intervals. In principle all the thirds are neutral, but in practice the thirds rendered by the singers often approximate natural major thirds (386 cents), especially at points of rest. In this manner, the principles of equidistance and harmonic euphony are accommodated within one tonal-harmonic system. For the notation of such music, a seven-line stave is most appropriate, with each horizontal line representing one pitch level.
Monophonic systems
These tonal systems, based on octaves, fifths, and fourths (i.e., on the simple ratios 1:2, 2:3, and 3:4), are found in the western Sudanic belt. There are also many pentatonic systems of this kind in the Sahel zone and on the Guinea Coast (such as those of the Fon and Oyo-Yoruba peoples), where no simultaneous sounds occur except octaves.
Systems based on instrumental harmonics
These tone systems may be divided into two subfamilies: (1) that based on the selective use of harmonics from a single fundamental (for example, the system of the Gogo of central Tanzania) and (2) that based on the selective use of harmonics from two or more fundamentals (for example, the systems of the Fang in Gabon and of the !Kung in southwestern Africa, based on harmonics from two fundamentals, and the hexatonic systems of the Lala, Nsenga, Swaka, and Shona in southern and central Africa, based on more than two fundamentals). All musical cultures employing this type of tone system practice multipart singing. The regions involved are southern Africa, central and southwestern Tanzania, and much of western central Africa.
The actual shape of the system depends upon whether the tonal material derives from one fundamental or more, upon the conventionalized intervals between these fundamentals (if there is more than one), and upon which section of the natural harmonic series is selected to form the tone system. Depending upon these variables, completely different tonal-harmonic systems may be encountered. The Gogo tone system, illustrated below, is basically tetratonic (within one octave) with a pentatonic extension. It is based on selective use of the sequence of natural harmonics from partials 4 to 9, over a single fundamental.
Art
The old tone system (now obsolete) of the Kisi people of Tanzania was hexatonic. It was based on the selective exploitation of the sequence of natural harmonics from partials 6 to 11 over a single fundamental.
Art
Tone systems based on the use of harmonics from two fundamentals are frequently encountered in areas where the musical bow, particularly the mouth bow in its varieties, is or was an important instrument. Western central Africa and the whole of southern Africa are the most prominent distribution areas for mouth bows; they are also found in some areas of West Africa.
The tone system of the !Kung people is tetratonic. It may manifest itself, however, in three different versions with different intervals, leading, as in the first of the tunings shown below, to a semitone interval (shown as F–E). Because the melodic and harmonic results of these particular tunings are unique, they provide strong evidence of San heritage in any southern African music in which they occur. In !Kung music the natural harmonic series of each fundamental is not used beyond the fourth partial. This is why fourths, fifths, and octaves are the characteristic simultaneous sounds in !Kung polyphony.
Art
Where, in addition to the second, third, and fourth partials, the fifth partials of each fundamental are also used, hexatonic tone systems arise. The tonal-harmonic system of the Handa-Nkhumbi group in southwestern Angola is one example, based on two fundamentals tuned about 200 cents apart. The resultant chords are thirds and fourths in characteristic positions:
Art
This system also underlies the music of the Xhosa in South Africa. It occurs, too, in some of the music of their neighbours, the Zulu and Swazi, although these latter use a different hexatonic system, based on fundamentals tuned about 100 cents apart. This tuning, used on the Zulu ugubhu gourd bow, has three semitone intervals:
Art
Multipart singing
Multipart singing and harmonic concepts are basic traits of many African musical traditions and have been observed by Western travelers since the earliest periods of contact. Contrary to earlier opinions, “harmony” in African music is now seen to be not a result of acculturation but rather indigenous to many parts of the continent. Polyphonic singing styles were almost certainly used by prehistoric hunters in central and southern Africa. Among the San, the discovery of the use of the hunting bow as a musical instrument, and with it the discovery of the harmonics of a stretched string, constituted a cluster of traits that were probably interdependent. Questions raised in the 19th and early 20th centuries as to whether the hunting bow or the musical bow was invented first are certainly irrelevant in the culture of southern African prehistoric hunters.
Multipart singing in African music embraces two entirely different approaches, homophonic and polyphonic, with the definition of these words adapted to African cultures.
Homophonic vocal styles
In these styles all melodic lines, though at different pitch levels, are rhythmically the same, and they begin and end together. Individual singers conceive of their voice lines—all carrying the same text—as identical in principle, only sung at different levels. Men sing “with a big voice” (i.e., in low voices), women and children “with small voices” (i.e., high voices). Their voices may stand a third, a fourth, a fifth, or an octave apart, but they are considered to sing the same tune. In practice, though, not only parallel but also oblique and contrary motion may occur. To what extent the latter is permitted depends upon the tolerance within the tonality of the particular language. For example, in eastern Angola contrary motion is normal practice. In other cultures movement is strictly parallel within the structure of the tone system concerned.
Homophonic multipart singing is found in particular concentration along the Guinea Coast. It is also found throughout western central Africa, among most peoples of Angola, Zambia, and Malaŵi, and in many parts of East Africa. In northern central Africa it is found among the Zande and related peoples. In southwestern parts of the Central African Republic there is three-part harmonic singing with vocal parts shifting chromatically between two roots one semitone apart. Homophonic vocal styles are often linked to a call-and-response (leader-chorus) form.
Polyphonic vocal styles
In these styles the complementary individual lines differ in their rhythm and phrasing and carry different texts or syllables. They may be of different length, and their starting and ending points do not coincide. Such styles are more restricted geographically. The vocal music of the San communities in southwestern Africa is predominantly polyphonic, as are the vocal styles of Bambuti in the Ituri Forest and the pygmy groups of the upper Sangha River area of the Congo and the Central African Republic. (The San and pygmy peoples, whose polyphonic styles and tone systems are based on different principles, have often mistakenly been lumped together in evolutionist theories.) In other parts of Africa, isolated islands of polyphonic singing occur among or between largely homophonic communities. Thus, the otherwise homophonic Gogo people employ polyphonic techniques in their saigwa and msunyunho songs, and Nyakyusa children of southwestern Tanzania use yodel and polyphony in a song type called kibota.
A distinct style of polyphonic singing is found in much of the music of the peoples of the lower Zambezi valley, in parts of Mozambique, and also in Zimbabwe, as exemplified by the Karanga-Shona threshing song shown here:
Art
This is a diagrammatic transcription showing the relationships between the five male voice parts (here transposed one octave and five semitones higher). In actual performance the voices enter consecutively, each starting from the double bar in his particular line and then repeatedly backtracking to the beginning of the line. The entry point for voices 2 and 3 is one pulse after the commencement of the last note of voice 1. When voice 1 repeats his line, his second syllable signals the entry point for voices 4 and 5. The cycle (which is continually repeated) is 18 pulses long. The harmonic scheme comprises a sequence of bichords in fourths and fifths, characteristic of much Shona music. The roots of these bichords, E A C / E G C, are shown above the top staff. The tone system here is hexatonic.
Polyphony is also prevalent in South Africa and Swaziland. In the dance-songs of the Nguni people (including the Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, and Ndebele), two or more voice parts, commencing at different points in the cycle, often overlap extensively. At least two parts, solo and chorus, are always regarded as essential. In fact, a solo vocalist singing the entire song usually does not complete a single voice part but instead shifts from one part to another when he arrives at the entry point of each part.
The Zulu bow song transcribed below begins with the bow phrase, which simulates a chorus part. During repetitions of this ostinato, the voices (sung in this transcription by Zulu princess Constance Magogo kaDinuzulu, her son Chief Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi, and several of his young children) enter in turn, each beginning at its double bar: first, voice 1, then, in subsequent repetitions of the 16-pulse cycle, voices 2 and 3. The lines shown below the song may be rendered by additional singers or by voices 2 and 3 as occasional variants.
Art
This song sounds very different indeed from the previous Shona example, mainly on account of its tone system, which has two semitone intervals. A pentatonic variant of the Zulu hexatonic system cited above, it is based on two instrumental roots a semitone apart. The melodic line produced on the ugubhu gourd bow employs harmonic partials 3 and 4 of the two fundamentals B and C, these harmonics being selectively resonated by moving the open end of the gourd resonator closer to or farther from the player's chest.
Despite the marked tonal dissimilarity between the Shona and Zulu songs, they clearly share an almost identical underlying formal structure, based on the principle of deliberately nonaligned, overlapping voice parts that retain the same relationship to one another through all successive repetitions of the song. The relationships of their parts can be demonstrated by concentric circles, in which clockwise rotation represents a cycle, or strophe, of the song, which is continually repeated.
Art
All the vocal music considered above has as its basis some kind of tone system. Among the Zulu and other Nguni peoples, however, certain non-melodic forms of chanting coexist alongside melodic styles of performance—even among items that fit the same category of “dance-song”—just as some English nursery rhymes are sung while others are recited or chanted. In such cases, fixed musical pitches are absent, and a singsong form of rhythmical recitation is used instead. The close affinity of such pieces with melodic songs is confirmed by their sharing of the same circular, multipart formal structure.
There is indeed evidence from many different parts of Africa of the use of intermediate vocal styles, falling somewhere between the extremes of speech and song. In many African cultures the boundary between the two does not tally exactly with the Western, demonstrating that definitions of music and song are culture-specific.
Gerhard KubikDonald Keith Robotham - posted on 02/24/2010
澄清一个问题。节奏是生命运动重复在时间上的形式,是内在的而非机械的。大家可以开着节拍器做爱试试看,是什么滋味?;) 最渴望的美女躺在下面你也心猿意马。;)
即使练琴用节拍器,也是大致匡正速度的把握。任何演出,都是包括节奏的个人化的处理。机械的节拍腻死人。
上面大英百科条选摘开始就讲了非洲音乐与舞蹈之不可分。进一步指出西方舞蹈的“单体”和非洲舞蹈“多体”的区别。西方舞蹈中,舞者的身体是一个单位,向同一方向运动,芭蕾是突出的例子;在非洲舞蹈中,舞者的身体是多个单位,可以向不同方向运动。爵士舞中讲究身体的“分离”(body isolation),就是这码事。拉丁舞中多有这个特点。芭蕾给人流线的感觉,爵士拉丁给人扭摆的感觉。摇摆舞是从哪里来的?;)
并不是所有音乐都有节奏。早期格利高里清唱就只有简单旋律而无节奏。这是“灵乐”。和尚念经有节奏么?节奏是给外力,身体控制的后果。圣人能让身体控制么?像话么?;)
至于当代黑人的摇滚教会,就不谈了。;) - posted on 02/24/2010
非洲中、西部的音乐,节奏好像很复杂,其实是因为用的是 polyrhythm 和 polymeter,就是不同演奏者用不同的节奏、节拍来演奏。我想可能是他们的音乐多是以舞蹈为主的、即兴的、部落的集体创作,而不是一个人的作品,所以衍变成今天这样的复节奏、复拍子的音乐。爵士乐也是,即兴的,集体创作的,所以节奏和节拍都复杂。
很好的启发。上面大英百科的详细论述似乎也是环绕这个观点。有点深邃复杂,需要慢慢消化。您这里说的,主要是强调不同声部(if we can call this way)之间的差异. 然而爵士乐即使是单声部中也给人丰富的节奏感 and/or 节拍感. (我个人的定义, 节奏主要指的是声音变化间的时间间隔规律.节拍是所谓强弱拍子的变化规律.)
非洲音乐传统中不同声部的可参差与它单声部内的节奏变化有什么关系. 希望可以从大百科引文中得倒一点启示. (容我细细读一下.)
我个人的体会, 爵士乐中再复杂的节奏变化(休止符,切分音等等) the apparent off-beat 最终还是要服从或者回到那个主导节奏(if I may).有点类似Schenkerian analysis 认为旋律变化再复杂也要服从一个简单的主线条 (what goes up needs to come down and vice versa), 和弦演进再复杂也要服从一个最基本的TDT 这个过程. 能否不自觉的在心里保持一个节拍器 to pull the rhythm back, 也许就划分了人的节奏感强弱.
吸收非洲传统,引进多声部节奏节拍差异, 我觉得是有价值的实践. 感觉这和多调性以及Hindemith 的 poly-melody 的实践都是一致的,都可以是丰富乐曲结构的有力方法.
非常感谢各位! - posted on 02/24/2010
大家可以开着节拍器做爱试试看,是什么滋味?;)
有一个TV series "Seinfeld", 其中一个episode, 还真是有一位把朋友教给的步骤(节奏变化, etc) 偷偷写在巴掌上.效果是很好的.对方发现了以后是很愤怒的,,,,
所以,艺术探讨完全是为了取悦对方,,,,
上面大英百科条选摘开始就讲了非洲音乐与舞蹈之不可分。进一步指出西方舞蹈的“单体”和非洲舞蹈“多体”的区别。西方舞蹈中,舞者的身体是一个单位,向同一方向运动,芭蕾是突出的例子;在非洲舞蹈中,舞者的身体是多个单位,可以向不同方向运动。爵士舞中讲究身体的“分离”(body isolation),就是这码事。拉丁舞中多有这个特点。芭蕾给人流线的感觉,爵士拉丁给人扭摆的感觉。摇摆舞是从哪里来的?;)
我想起太极拳.常怔怔地观赏, every move is non-intuitive. 当你觉得它是向前的时侯,它向后去了, etc. 而且是永远的 legato.
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/24/2010
说起太极拳。主要两派是杨式和陈式。杨式多连音;陈式多断音。 - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/24/2010
有一个TV series "Seinfeld", 其中一个episode, 还真是有一位把朋友教给的步骤(节奏变化, etc) 偷偷写在巴掌上.效果是很好的.对方发现了以后是很愤怒的,,,,
You mean like what Sarah did?
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/25/2010
我不是专家,更少听非洲音乐,所以也只是乱猜。非洲音乐起初是多“声部”的复节奏、复节拍,后来衍变成单声部也可以有复杂的节奏节拍。爵士乐大概也如此。
不知节奏感和对复杂节奏的理解、诠释力是与生俱来的,还是可以后天培养、改善。
WuYing 是研究音乐创作的?
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/25/2010
看这条线收获不小。我最近也在想这个事儿,因为两个孩子都碰到这方面的问题。儿子弹钢琴,没有节奏感,只有数字感,觉得表达不出来音乐。老师也说他没有从内心往外喷射音乐。女儿练艺术体操,我看着就觉得没有展示出音乐的内容。当然她自己还处于能把一套动作做下来就不错了的状态,表达还没有进入思维。
然后觉得这实在是跟孩子的生活经历有关。父母带他们,也是死板地,没有太多的肢体动作表达情感。估计这样一代代地下去,肢体文化得不到开发,人体本身就缺乏一种韵律,或者说原有的韵律也被遏制了。 - posted on 02/26/2010
刚刚忙回来,来不及囫囵吞枣,先汇报一下对头几段的初步反应。
〉while in African and Afro-American dance it seems to be “polycentric”—that is, split into several independent body areas or “centres.”
联想起,芝加哥“公牛队”五连冠时报刊对Michael Jordan的评论,大意:他跃起来,右手作投篮状,左手作阻挡防守队员袭击状,头却往另一边看去,寻找一个队友是否在空当可以把球传过去。一个人似乎有分身法。也是一个“多中心”的表现。
也许非洲人的舞蹈模仿动物举动,处在较原始阶段。欧洲宫廷当然认为这是粗野不开化的。小步舞,身板直直的,那才是文明的表现。
〉 Besides polyrhythmic and polymetric procedures, melodic phrases are frequently offset against one another, with different starting and ending points, either in an antiphonal “call-and-response” relationship or in an overlapping relationship that yields polyphony.
这个应该可以看作特别放任自由的对位。要是多声部很参差的话,指挥是太困难了。西方复调音乐骄傲在制定各种章法。现代音乐精神也许应该是自由的精神。
In addition, melodic phrasing and instrumental accompaniment may be deliberately out of step—a displacement technique described in 1952 by American anthropologist Richard Waterman as “offbeat phrasing of melodic accents.”
这里,以及底下"Timing" 那一节都是讲的单声道的节奏问题了。
1. There is an overall presence of a mental background pulsation, or “metronome sense,” consisting of equally spaced pulse units continuing ad infinitum and often at great speed. These so-called elementary pulses serve as a basic orientation screen;
我觉得这就是我前面提到的那个不自觉的主导节奏。为什么他们能在丰富多变的offbeat中默持着这个节奏,真是太神秘。百科这里的描述很仔细,读了收获很大
3. Such strophes or cycles are often divisible in more than one way, allowing simultaneous combinations of contradictory metrical units. For example, 12 pulses—12 is the most important form number in African music—can be divided by 2, 3, 4, and 6.
4.
爵士乐也是这么回事。那些band members用脚尖、用点头打的拍子往往比音乐表面上体现的拍子要快两三倍。这样表面上打不到点子上的音乐其实都在点子上。
Patterns with the same form number can be shifted out of phase, so that their starting points and main accents do not coincide, resulting in “cross rhythms.” In some cases they cross in such a way that they interlock, or fall between one another, with no two notes ever sounding together.
还是不明白非洲人从哪里得来这个"天赋“, 或者说欧亚人是如何失去了这个天赋的。
我理解不对的地方,请批评指教。
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/26/2010
You mean like what Sarah did?
I only heard on the radio how Sarah got caught, but I didn't get to see her hand. Thanks for sharing ... that's quite something - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/26/2010
touche wrote:
说起太极拳。主要两派是杨式和陈式。杨式多连音;陈式多断音。
惭愧!只知世上有杨,未识天下有陈。又长了见识。 - posted on 02/26/2010
不知节奏感和对复杂节奏的理解、诠释力是与生俱来的,还是可以后天培养、改善。
觉得是环境使然。我孩子学钢琴,老师时不时的让练各种Jazz style, 好象也很习惯。但比起许多African American kids, 那肯定是差远了。Greg Hines 是在哪一部电影里说的?"You are black, you are born, you tap."
btw, 我不研究音乐创作。笼统地说,现在有个趋势要用工具帮助分析各种文化传统。觉得音乐多少比较线性一些,也许相对容易一些。但看来也是很难的。积累一点知识,用不上也不冤枉。
谢谢帮助!
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/27/2010
wuying, 咖啡里有很多有关舞蹈、节奏与身体关系的文字。随便先把我的几篇翻出来给你参考。
http://www.mayacafe.com/forum/topic1sp.php3?tkey=1138371996 - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 02/27/2010
- posted on 02/27/2010
maya wrote:
wuying, 咖啡里有很多有关舞蹈、节奏与身体关系的文字。随便先把我的几篇翻出来给你参考。
谢谢! 文章很有活力,值得细读。也许可以得到一点灵感。您还编过舞蹈?谁给配的音乐?
-----------------------------------
又,感谢Touche的启发,我去找了最近的几期 Ethnomusicology 翻了翻,还真找到一篇 "Concept, Style, and Structure in the Music of African Pygmies and Bushmen: A Study in Cross-Cultural Analysis" 其中引用的若干谱例中,有一个似乎很简明地同时体现了单声部节奏特征与多声部“对位”上多节拍性(如 Dance beat, drums 形成一个节拍组,其它声部另一组)。 贴在这里,供欣赏。
- posted on 03/01/2010
结束这条线之前,我想匆匆汇报一下这几天阅读后的想法。其中有些道理有的咖啡客已经说过,重复一下。
用 Click language 来解释非洲音乐的丰富节奏有比较大的困难。我们说非洲音乐,主要应该是指埃塞俄比亚以南的南部非洲音乐。在此以北的音乐接近西亚音乐。Clink language 仅局限于南非共和国周边的个别部落。("The Gods Must Be Crazy" 电影描绘的那一带),未足以涵盖广袤的南部非洲。
舞蹈和音乐渗透于非洲人生活的各方面,是他们生活的核心。大英百科1964版本还提到一群人在缝纫车间工作都要你呼我唱。世界其他地方无可比拟。
我觉得非洲舞蹈对自然动物的模仿一直延续很久。世界其他许多文明则较早地从这种原始模仿中抽象出来了。
中国文明发达地区早早地离弃了原始的舞蹈和音乐形式。我们只是从《楚辞》中可以想象一点。中国比较放得开的音乐和表演幸存于民间艺术、戏曲班子、以及烟花行业。大体上不齿于士大夫正统。
或可与舞蹈相平行的似乎是中国武术,也许可以弥补一下传统上的不足。其节奏丰富者,如“醉拳”,“猴拳”及其他取名于动物的套路,也许是作曲者可以激发想象力的地方。(Oh, to think of “景阳冈” fantasy, ”武侠“三部曲, “西游记”组曲!)
咖啡客一定有不少是熟悉 Stravinsky 的。但为了表示感谢,我还是贴两个links to Youtube, Symphony in C, 作为非洲节奏在学院音乐里的痕迹体现。
很遗憾,这个连接只有第一乐章,我本来是想找第三乐章, 特征更突出。
这个录音虽然音质不如现在许多新的,其难得之处是the maestro 亲自指挥克里夫兰交响乐团。
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUfjcqg07M8
底下这个是the maestro 一个排练的录音,priceless indeed, to hear him guide the orchestra through the complex rhythms.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiPVFwvGu8U&feature=related
Thanks again! - posted on 03/02/2010
雪日好读书。昨天把达尔文“人类的由来”人类章再读一遍,想到音乐之源达尔文亦
是一家说,我把网上英文片段转到这里一下。
达尔文的探讨虽然过去一百多年,些许落后,但综合全面,发人深思:
Voice and Musical Powers. - In some species of Quadrumana there is
a great difference between the adult sexes, in the power of their
voices and in the development of the vocal organs; and man appears
to have inherited this difference from his early progenitors. His
vocal cords are about one-third longer than in woman, or than in boys;
and emasculation produces the same effect on him as on the lower
animals, for it "arrests that prominent growth of the thyroid, &c.,
which accompanies the elongation of the cords."* With respect to the
cause of this difference between the sexes, I have nothing to add to
the remarks in the last chapter on the probable effects of the
long-continued use of the vocal organs by the male under the
excitement of love, rage and jealousy. According to Sir Duncan
Gibb,*(2) the voice and the form of the larynx differ in the different
races of mankind; but with the Tartars, Chinese, &c., the voice of the
male is said not to differ so much from that of the female, as in most
other races.
* Owen, Anatomy of Vertebrates, vol. iii., p. 603.
*(2) Journal of the Anthropological Society, April, 1869, pp.
lvii. and lxvi.
The capacity and love for singing or music, though not a sexual
character in man, must not here be passed over. Although the sounds
emitted by animals of all kinds serve many purposes, a strong case can
be made out, that the vocal organs were primarily used and perfected
in relation to the propagation of the species. Insects and some few
spiders are the lowest animals which voluntarily produce any sound;
and this is generally effected by the aid of beautifully constructed
stridulating organs, which are often confined to the males. The sounds
thus produced consist, I believe in all cases, of the same note,
repeated rhythmically;* and this is sometimes pleasing even to the
ears of man. The chief and, in some cases, exclusive purpose appears
to be either to call or charm the opposite sex.
* Dr. Scudder, "Notes on Stridulation," in Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat.
Hist., vol. xi., April, 1868.
The sounds produced by fishes are said in some cases to be made only
by the males during the breeding-season. All the air-breathing
Vertebrata, necessarily possess an apparatus for inhaling and
expelling air, with a pipe capable of being closed at one end. Hence
when the primeval members of this class were strongly excited and
their muscles violently contracted, purposeless sounds would almost
certainly have been produced; and these, if they proved in any way
serviceable, might readily have been modified or intensified by the
preservation of properly adapted variations. The lowest vertebrates
which breathe air are amphibians; and of these, frogs and toads
possess vocal organs, which are incessantly used during the
breeding-season, and which are often more highly developed in the male
than in the female. The male alone of the tortoise utters a noise, and
this only during the season of love. Male alligators roar or bellow
during the same season. Every one knows how much birds use their vocal
organs as a means of courtship; and some species likewise perform what
may be called instrumental music.
In the class of mammals, with which we are here more particularly
concerned, the males of almost all the species use their voices during
the breeding-season much more than at any other time; and some are
absolutely mute excepting at this season. With other species both
sexes, or only the females, use their voices as a love-call.
Considering these facts, and that the vocal organs of some
quadrupeds are much more largely developed in the male than in the
female, either permanently or temporarily during the
breeding-season; and considering that in most of the lower classes the
sounds produced by the males, serve not only to call but to excite
or allure the female, it is a surprising fact that we have not as
yet any good evidence that these organs are used by male mammals to
charm the females. The American Mycetes caraya perhaps forms an
exception, as does the Hylobates agilis, an ape allied to man. This
gibbon has an extremely loud but musical voice. Mr. Waterhouse
states,* "It appeared to me that in ascending and descending the
scale, the intervals were always exactly half-tones; and I am sure
that the highest note was the exact octave to the lowest. The
quality of the notes is very musical; and I do not doubt that a good
violinist would be able to give a correct idea of the gibbon's
composition, excepting as regards its loudness." Mr. Waterhouse then
gives the notes. Professor Owen, who is a musician, confirms the
foregoing statement, and remarks, though erroneously, that this gibbon
"alone of brute mammals may be said to sing." It appears to be much
excited after its performance. Unfortunately, its habits have never
been closely observed in a state of nature; but from the analogy of
other animals, it is probable that it uses its musical powers more
especially during the season of courtship.
* Given in W. C. L. Martin's General Introduction to Natural History
of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 432; Owen, Anatomy of Vertebrates, vol.
iii, p. 600.
This gibbon is not the only species in the genus which sings, for my
son, Francis Darwin, attentively listened in the Zoological Gardens to
H. leuciscus whilst singing a cadence of three notes, in true
musical intervals and with a clear musical tone. It is a more
surprising fact that certain rodents utter musical sounds. Singing
mice have often been mentioned and exhibited, but imposture has
commonly been suspected. We have, however, at last a clear account
by a well-known observer, the Rev. S. Lockwood,* of the musical powers
of an American species, the Hesperomys cognatus, belonging to a
genus distinct from that of the English mouse. This little animal
was kept in confinement, and the performance was repeatedly heard.
In one of the two chief songs, "the last bar would frequently be
prolonged to two or three; and she would sometimes change from C sharp
and D, to C natural and D, then warble on these two notes awhile,
and wind up with a quick chirp on C sharp and D. The distinctness
between the semitones was very marked, and easily appreciable to a
good ear." Mr. Lockwood gives both songs in musical notation; and adds
that though this little mouse "had no ear for time, yet she would keep
to the key of B (two flats) and strictly in a major key." ... "Her
soft clear voice falls an octave with all the precision possible; then
at the wind up, it rises again into a very quick trill on C sharp
and D."
* American Naturalist, 1871, p. 761.
A critic has asked how the ears of man, and he ought to have added
of other animals, could have been adapted by selection so as to
distinguish musical notes. But this question shows some confusion on
the subject; a noise is the sensation resulting from the
co-existence of several aerial "simple vibrations" of various periods,
each of which intermits so frequently that its separate existence
cannot be perceived. It is only in the want of continuity of such
vibrations, and in their want of harmony inter se, that a noise
differs from a musical note. Thus, an ear to be capable of
discriminating noises- and the high importance of this power to all
animals is admitted by every one- must be sensitive to musical
notes. We have evidence of this capacity even low down in the animal
scale; thus, crustaceans are provided with auditory hairs of different
lengths, which have been seen to vibrate when the proper musical notes
are struck.* As stated in a previous chapter, similar observations
have been made on the hairs of the antennae of gnats. It has been
positively asserted by good observers that spiders are attracted by
music. It is also well known that some dogs howl when hearing
particular tones.*(2) Seals apparently appreciate music, and their
fondness for it "was well known to the ancients, and is often taken
advantage of by the hunters at the present day."*(3)
* Helmholtz, Theorie Phys. de la Musique, 1868, p. 187.
*(2) Several accounts have been published to this effect. Mr.
Peach writes to me that an old dog of his howls when B flat is sounded
on the flute, and to no other note. I may add another instance of a
dog always whining, when one note on a concertina, which was out of
tune, was played.
*(3) Mr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc., 1868, p. 410.
Therefore, as far as the mere perception of musical notes is
concerned, there seems no special difficulty in the case of man or
of any other animal. Helmholtz has explained on physiological
principles why concords are agreeable, and discords disagreeable to
the human ear; but we are little concerned with these, as music in
harmony is a late invention. We are more concerned with melody, and
here again, according to Helmholtz, it is intelligible why the notes
of our musical scale are used. The ear analyses all sounds into
their component "simple vibrations," although we are not conscious
of this analysis. In a musical note the lowest in pitch of these is
generally predominant, and the others which are less marked are the
octave, the twelfth, the second octave, &c., all harmonies of the
fundamental predominant note; any two notes of our scale have many
of these harmonic over-tones in common. It seems pretty clear then,
that if an animal always wished to sing precisely the same song, he
would guide himself by sounding those notes in succession, which
possess many overtones in common- that is, he would choose for his
song, notes which belong to our musical scale.
But if it be further asked why musical tones in a certain order
and rhythm give man and other animals pleasure, we can no more give
the reason than for the pleasantness of certain tastes and smells.
That they do give pleasure of some kind to animals, we may infer
from their being produced during the season of courtship by many
insects, spiders, fishes, amphibians, and birds; for unless the
females were able to appreciate such sounds and were excited or
charmed by them, the persevering efforts of the males, and the complex
structures often possessed by them alone, would be useless; and this
it is impossible to believe.
Human song is generally admitted to be the basis or origin of
instrumental music. As neither the enjoyment nor the capacity of
producing musical notes are faculties of the least use to man in
reference to his daily habits of life, they must be ranked amongst the
most mysterious with which he is endowed. They are present, though
in a very rude condition, in men of all races, even the most savage;
but so different is the taste of the several races, that our music
gives no pleasure to savages, and their music is to us in most cases
hideous and unmeaning. Dr. Seemann, in some interesting remarks on
this subject,* "doubt whether even amongst the nations of western
Europe, intimately connected as they are by close and frequent
intercourse, the music of the one is interpreted in the same sense
by the others. By travelling eastwards we find that there is certainly
a different language of music. Songs of joy and dance-accompaniments
are no longer, as with us, in the major keys, but always in the
minor." Whether or not the half-human progenitors of man possessed,
like the singing gibbons, the capacity of producing, and therefore
no doubt of appreciating, musical notes, we know that man possessed
these faculties at a very remote period. M. Lartet has described two
flutes made out of the bones and horns of the reindeer, found in caves
together with flint tools and the remains of extinct animals. The arts
of singing and of dancing are also very ancient, and are now practised
by all or nearly all the lowest races of man. Poetry, which may be
considered as the offspring of song, is likewise so ancient, that many
persons have felt astonished that it should have arisen during the
earliest ages of which we have any record.
* Journal of Anthropological Society, Oct., 1870, p. clv. See also
the several later chapters in Sir John Lubbock's Prehistoric Times,
2nd ed., 1869, which contain an admirable account of the habits of
savages.
We see that the musical faculties, which are not wholly deficient in
any race, are capable of prompt and high development, for Hottentots
and Negroes have become excellent musicians, although in their
native countries they rarely practise anything that we should consider
music. Schweinfurth, however, was pleased with some of the simple
melodies which he heard in the interior of Africa. But there is
nothing anomalous in the musical faculties lying dormant in man:
some species of birds which never naturally sing, can without much
difficulty be taught to do so; thus a house-sparrow has learnt the
song of a linnet. As these two species are closely allied, and
belong to the order of Insessores, which includes nearly all the
singing-birds in the world, it is possible that a progenitor of the
sparrow may have been a songster. It is more remarkable that
parrots, belonging to a group distinct from the Insessores, and having
differently constructed vocal organs, can be taught not only to speak,
but to pipe or whistle tunes invented by man, so that they must have
some musical capacity. Nevertheless it would be very rash to assume
that parrots are descended from some ancient form which was a
songster. Many cases could be advanced of organs and instincts
originally adapted for one purpose, having been utilised for some
distinct purpose.* Hence the capacity for high musical development
which the savage races of man possess, may be due either to the
practice by our semi-human progenitors of some rude form of music,
or simply to their having acquired the proper vocal organs for a
different purpose. But in this latter ease we must assume, as in the
above instance of parrots, and as seems to occur with many animals,
that they already possessed some sense of melody.
* Since this chapter was printed, I have seen a valuable article
by Mr. Chauncey Wright (North American Review, Oct., 1870, page
293), who, in discussing the above subject, remarks, "There are many
consequences of the ultimate laws or uniformities of nature, through
which the acquisition of one useful power will bring with it many
resulting advantages as well as limiting disadvantages, actual or
possible, which the principle of utility may not have comprehended
in its action." As I have attempted to shew in an early chapter of
this work, this principle has an important bearing on the
acquisition by man of some of his mental characteristics.
Music arouses in us various emotions, but not the more terrible ones
of horror, fear, rage, &c. It awakens the gentler feelings of
tenderness and love, which readily pass into devotion. In the
Chinese annals it is said, "Music hath the power of making heaven
descend upon earth." It likewise stirs up in us the sense of triumph
and the glorious ardour for war. These powerful and mingled feelings
may well give rise to the sense of sublimity. We can concentrate, as
Dr. Seemann observes, greater intensity of feeling in a single musical
note than in pages of writing. It is probable that nearly the same
emotions, but much weaker and far less complex, are felt by birds when
the male pours forth his full volume of song, in rivalry with other
males, to captivate the female. Love is still the commonest theme of
our songs. As Herbert Spencer remarks, "music arouses dormant
sentiments of which we had not conceived the possibility, and do not
know the meaning; or, as Richter says, tells us of things we have
not seen and shall not see." Conversely, when vivid emotions are
felt and expressed by the orator, or even in common speech, musical
cadences and rhythm are instinctively used. The negro in Africa when
excited often bursts forth in song; "another will reply in song,
whilst the company, as if touched by a musical wave, murmur a chorus
in perfect unison."* Even monkeys express strong feelings in different
tones- anger and impatience by low,- fear and pain by high
notes.*(2) The sensations and ideas thus excited in us by music, or
expressed by the cadences of oratory, appear from their vagueness, yet
depth, like mental reversions to the emotions and thoughts of a
long-past age.
* Winwood Reade, The Martyrdom of Man, 1872, p. 441, and African
Sketch Book, 1873, vol. ii., p. 313.
*(2) Rengger, Saugethiere von Paraguay, s. 49.
All these facts with respect to music and impassioned speech
become intelligible to a certain extent, if we may assume that musical
tones and rhythm were used by our half-human ancestors, during the
season of courtship, when animals of all kinds are excited not only by
love, but by the strong passions of jealousy, rivalry, and triumph.
From the deeply-laid principle of inherited associations, musical
tones in this case would be likely to call up vaguely and indefinitely
the strong emotions of a long-past age. As we have every reason to
suppose that articulate speech is one of the latest, as it certainly
is the highest, of the arts acquired by man, and as the instinctive
power of producing musical notes and rhythms is developed low down
in the animal series, it would be altogether opposed to the
principle of evolution, if we were to admit that man's musical
capacity has been developed from the tones used in impassioned speech.
We must suppose that the rhythms and cadences of oratory are derived
from previously developed musical powers.* We can thus understand
how it is that music, dancing, song, and poetry are such very
ancient arts. We may go even further than this, and, as remarked in
a former chapter, believe that musical sounds afforded one of the
bases for the development of language.*(2)
* See the very interesting discussion on the "Origin and Function of
Music," by Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his collected Essays, 1858, p. 359.
Mr. Spencer comes to an exactly opposite conclusion to that at which I
have arrived. He concludes, as did Diderot formerly, that the cadences
used in emotional speech afford the foundation from which music has
been developed; whilst I conclude that musical notes and rhythm were
first acquired by the male or female progenitors of mankind for the
sake of charming the opposite sex. Thus musical tones became firmly
associated with some of the strongest passions an animal is capable of
feeling, and are consequently used instinctively, or through
association when strong emotions are expressed in speech. Mr.
Spencer does not offer any satisfactory explanation, nor can I, why
high or deep notes should be expressive, both with man and the lower
animals, of certain emotions. Mr. Spencer gives also an interesting
discussion on the relations between poetry, recitative and song.
*(2) I find in Lord Monboddo's Origin of Language, vol. i., 1774, p.
469, that Dr. Blacklock likewise thought "that the first language
among men was music, and that before our ideas were expressed by
articulate sounds, they were communicated by tones varied according to
different degrees of gravity and acuteness."
As the males of several quadrumanous animals have their vocal organs
much more developed than in the females, and as a gibbon, one of the
anthropomorphous apes, pours forth a whole octave of musical notes and
may be said to sing, it appears probable that the progenitors of
man, either the males or females or both sexes, before acquiring the
power of expressing their mutual love in articulate language,
endeavoured to charm each other with musical notes and rhythm. So
little is known about the use of the voice by the Quadrumana during
the season of love, that we have no means of judging whether the habit
of singing was first acquired by our male or female ancestors. Women
are generally thought to possess sweeter voices than men, and as far
as this serves as any guide, we may infer that they first acquired
musical powers in order to attract the other sex.* But if so, this
must have occurred long ago, before our ancestors had become
sufficiently human to treat and value their women merely as useful
slaves. The impassioned orator, bard, or musician, when with his
varied tones and cadences he excites the strongest emotions in his
hearers, little suspects that he uses the same means by which his
half-human ancestors long ago aroused each other's ardent passions,
during their courtship and rivalry.
* See an interesting discussion on this subject by Haeckel,
Generelle Morphologie, B. ii., 1866, s. 246.
http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/charles_darwin/descent_of_man/chapter_19.html
咖啡这一线有我敲的中文对应。
http://www.mayacafe.com/forum/topic1sp.php3?tkey=1229615657 这一线迟回了!
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 03/02/2010
请wuying给标题加英文名字,想让非汉语的音乐朋友读这篇,另外请将图缩小。我编的舞都是玩儿的,是现代舞课上老师布置的作业。
音乐语言太抽象,我玩不来,舞蹈直观,容易理解。谢wuying 这条线。
- posted on 03/03/2010
maya wrote:
请wuying给标题加英文名字,想让非汉语的音乐朋友读这篇,另外请将图缩小。
已遵命。标题若有更好的翻译,请建议。抱歉,早先没有注意到图大小的限制。还没有完全减小到规定的尺寸。今晚暂且留在80K上。
我编的舞都是玩儿的,是现代舞课上老师布置的作业。
音乐语言太抽象,我玩不来,舞蹈直观,容易理解。
因为去找您编的舞,倒是搜寻到很多音乐方面的讨论。感觉你们很serious. Full of agony. 是认真追索的一群。相形之下,我真是很take it easy, 就是跟玩儿似的。有点惭愧。祝你们找到要找的东西。
音乐有抽象的(比如勋伯格的和弦长篇大论,我以前每天晚上读不到一页就睡着了。是好催眠剂)。 但也可以很直观。你喜欢舞蹈,舞曲其实是最令人开心的。连肖斯卡科维其那样严肃的人都写漂亮的舞曲(大人物写小品),I guess just to keep his sanity.
再次谢谢帮助。
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 03/03/2010
谢谢找出Darwin的论述。着实赏心悦目,虽然说有的论述似乎受他经历局限。比如他对非洲音乐显然了解没有现在的学者多,所以说的比较片面。Ah, the way he quoted about the voices of Chinese, 不是有点那个令人愤愤么,呵呵。那位学者恐怕只见过阉人,所以误会了。对了,至于生理基础,我觉得很明显声带结构是受hormone影响的。要不怎么阉人的声音会变?
今天太晚了。明后天再细读这一段Darwin的好文。 - posted on 03/04/2010
唔,这线很好玩儿,没看完也没都看明白就想说话了,touche引的那个欧洲人body movement是single block,亚洲人也差不多,但非洲人好像能polycentric,我在想,很多动物是很有节奏的大概也是polycentric,是不是我们后来渐渐丢失了这个能力?身体有几个可以独立活动的中心以及block数的减少会不会和从四肢着地到人的直立有关,你看蛇任何一节都可以动,蜈蚣怎么爬没见过,雪豹跑起来身体也是分块来动,我们看到的是合起来的节奏,人走起路来就单调多了。
还有,舞、巫、武,是不是同源?都一个音。
WuYing wrote:
用 Click language 来解释非洲音乐的丰富节奏有比较大的困难。我们说非洲音乐,主要应该是指埃塞俄比亚以南的南部非洲音乐。在此以北的音乐接近西亚音乐。Clink language 仅局限于南非共和国周边的个别部落。("The Gods Must Be Crazy" 电影描绘的那一带),未足以涵盖广袤的南部非洲。
This connection is interesting also,暂时先别排除,因为Clink language的局限是后来部落/语言spread out的结果,记得说东非也还有部落(isolated pocket)有click language和南非的同一语系。 - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 03/05/2010
我不懂音乐和乐理,所以这线看的半懂不懂的,但很有意思。
不过从生理结构来说,我们都知道肌肉的组成是有种族差异的, 我在猜想, 从目前所知,音乐的节奏是和小脑有很大的关系,听神经有一小束是直达小脑的,而小脑同时也兼管运动平衡,是否黑人的小脑构造如肌肉也有一些subtle advantage 。
还有个side note, 有一种疾病叫william syndrome, 这类孩子有mental retardation 和其他问题,但是往往有超常的音乐感, 他们的小脑也特别比常人大。
- Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 03/06/2010
我是新来乍到的, 很喜欢这条线, 也欣赏各位大爷, 大叔, 大姐大的知识和见地. - posted on 03/08/2010
[引浮生]
很多动物是很有节奏的大概也是polycentric,是不是我们后来渐渐丢失了这个能力?身体有几个可以独立活动的中心以及block数的减少会不会和从四肢着地到人的直立有关,
唔。。。这既有解剖学上的不同又有神经系统的不同(见草叶评论)。进化论的结果似乎证明大脑的发达比保持身体的灵活性更有进化优势。以后全世界都要被身体罗锅守在电脑前的人类所统治。无人驾驶的Predator到处飞,称霸全球。
说正经的,人脑的多控制中心似乎是用进废退,而且有遗传因素。一个学校乐队里,分明就有学生不能同时看谱并演奏。
还有,舞、巫、武,是不是同源?都一个音。
郭老在世就好了,可以就这样的问题大胆发言。
用 Click language 来解释非洲音乐的丰富节奏有比较大的困难。This connection is interesting also,暂时先别排除,
言之有理!谢谢!
[引草叶]
〉不过从生理结构来说,我们都知道肌肉的组成是有种族差异的, 我在猜想, 从目前所知,音乐的节奏是和小脑有很大的关系,听神经有一小束是直达小脑的,而小脑同时也兼管运动平衡,是否黑人的小脑构造如肌肉也有一些subtle advantage 。
〉还有个side note, 有一种疾病叫william syndrome, 这类孩子有mental retardation 和其他问题,但是往往有超常的音乐感, 他们的小脑也特别比常人大。
很受启发。您这里只提到小脑(与节奏的关系)。我推而想之,人对音乐的感受(from sensory to perception), 是不是有个什么极限。“中心”的个数多了,是不是就超越了这个极限?
按照申克(Schenker) 说法,围绕motif 为中心写作,是西方古典音乐作曲的划时代事件。抽象的音乐有了一个塑造鲜明的艺术形象的办法。以各种方式在变化中加以重复、深化、丰富。然而现代学院音乐作曲的垄断模式则似乎是尽量避免重复,尽量多中心甚至无中心。半个多世纪的实验似乎显示了一般人没有能力或耐心去感受这种极限音乐。也许这样的极限音乐只能作为另一种媒体(比如电影)的陪衬(背景),或者只能以短短的片断出现在更大的作品中。
扯远了。
(看到“暗香”的“声声慢”的词作。顺便又联想到中国古代词的出现,实际上也是在节奏上的一个解放。我个人体会,即使是现在的人给这类格律词谱曲,多少也会在节奏甚至节拍上受到一点影响。又扯远了。)
达尔文和大英百科参照着读,觉得很有意思。但还是困了。只好先歇歇。抱歉。 - posted on 03/08/2010
嗯,有一本书谈到音乐节奏,音调,旋律等等和大脑的关系,这条线上曾写过小脑和音乐。
http://www.mayacafe.com/forum/topic1sp.php3?tkey=1223964865
Wiki上也有简要介绍:Music and brain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_and_the_brain
Cerebellar control of timing and rhythm. Function MRI studies
http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200103/000020010300A0981550.php
还有前头提到荷尔蒙,我读过一篇音乐天才和Testosterone level的关系也很有意思。
结论是音乐才能在男性是和低testosterone level 有关,而女性则是相反。
Two recently published hypotheses on the biological basis of special talents are discussed in relation to experimental data obtained from musical composers, instrumentalists, painters, and non-musicians, and from adolescent boys and girls with different levels of musical capacities. Both hypotheses assign an important influence to prenatal testosterone effects on the developing brain. Geschwind and Galaburda (1985) predict that subjects with special talents may have anomalous hemispheric dominance for verbal material. This was confirmed experimentally in adolescents and in adults using a dichotic listening task to assess functional lateralization. Hassler and Nieschlag (1989) expect musicians of both sexes to be psychologically androgynous and to have current testosterone levels that differ from sex-typed males and females. Salivary testosterone was measured in adults and in adolescents. Creative musical behavior was associated with very low testosterone values in males, and with high testosterone levels in females. Sexual activity level and motivation did not differ between males with testosterone levels less than or equal to 200 pmol/l and those with greater than 220 pmol/l. We tentatively suggest from our data that, among a complex interaction of biological and social factors, an optimal testosterone range may exist for the expression of creative musical behavior. Exceeding the range in the course of adolescence may be detrimental for musical creativity in boys. - Re: 请教一个关于非洲音乐的人类学问题posted on 03/08/2010
凑个热闹,
My head is full of brain. Can somebody read my mind?
my MT areas responding to visual motions. Is this related to my music talent in some way? - posted on 03/10/2010
谢草医给我的胡乱猜想提供医学论据。身体与智力,矛盾又统一。我相信精神、智力与身体的完美组合才是真实的trinity “三位一体”。
不过从生理结构来说,我们都知道肌肉的组成是有种族差异的, 我在猜想, 从目前所知,音乐的节奏是和小脑有很大的关系,听神经有一小束是直达小脑的,而小脑同时也兼管运动平衡,是否黑人的小脑构造如肌肉也有一些subtle advantage 。
还有个side note, 有一种疾病叫william syndrome, 这类孩子有mental retardation 和其他问题,但是往往有超常的音乐感, 他们的小脑也特别比常人大。
- posted on 03/11/2010
[引草叶]
"有一本书谈到音乐节奏,音调,旋律等等和大脑的关系,这条线上曾写过小脑和音乐。
http://www.mayacafe.com/forum/topic1sp.php3?tkey=1223964865"
谢谢您介绍这些。没有忘掉。还有达尔文。他对于自然音阶与和声的猜测或断言似乎和前面百科对非洲音乐的音调描绘显然严重冲突。但这些读起来,写起来都是heavy lifting. 不敢马上答话。倒是想起一个事。好象是两年前,普林斯顿搞数学的在"Science" (or Nature?) 发表了一篇文章,列了一个和弦之间的关系图,借此想提出一个数学或物理解释:和弦之间关系的远近和chord progression 的自然途径。读了这个脑电图,我想要是给人听各种和弦递进,强的,弱的,和谐的,不和谐的,然后录下脑的image change,看看是什么反应。也许这个实验早就作过了。 - posted on 03/12/2010
随便再讲几句:
Click语言的影响,是我的一个设想。使用Click语言的布须曼人是非洲人的祖先,源头较早。据我不多的观察,Click音是间断的,爆破的。发这样的音,会更体悟到时间感,就像休止符对音符的影响。我设想,口吃的人对时间与音乐的切分有更好的体悟。;) Click语言,是否很容易成为一种口腔的舞蹈?再进一步,人的口腔是不是人类节奏感及其表达的第一利器?观察观察你的舞蹈老师。
关于身体的多中心,我觉得只有在特定风格中的舞蹈才有。武术体育与舞蹈相比,都是更功利性的东西,也就是说,它们对时间的把握,受制于对手动作。在舞蹈中,时间的把握全服从于自我的表现,艺术就在这时间把握中。当然体育武术和舞蹈的综合形式比如自由体操,花样滑冰,表演性武术等,这又是另一类别。
斯特拉文斯基的“现代”音乐的灵感,是俄罗斯的民间音乐。俄罗斯的民间音乐和非洲音乐有什么联系,这又是另一个问题了。
西方古典音乐和舞蹈,是西方大师们的卫生产品,是意念统帅的艺术。到了浪漫后期,艺术家们觉得这卫生艺术太卫生了,缺乏野味,非洲和其他地方的音乐才被用来作调料。 - posted on 03/12/2010
过两天要出个远门,先也随意聊两句。
touche wrote:
随便再讲几句:
Click语言的影响,是我的一个设想。使用Click语言的布须曼人是非洲人的祖先,源头较早。
前面浮生(?)提到了,我也觉得有道理。暂置疑。
〉据我不多的观察,Click音是间断的,爆破的。
我听了、看了几个演示录像。很有意思。私下觉得那样说话很费唾沫。Bushman tribe 大概是不缺水。然而广大非洲,渐渐的,很多地方水还是挺缺的,不光是北非。也许为了省唾沫,clicks 便被进化掉了。;-)
Click语言,是否很容易成为一种口腔的舞蹈?再进一步,人的口腔是不是人类节奏感及其表达的第一利器?
我想那hip-hop “乐派“已然是先行者。
武术体育与舞蹈相比,都是更功利性的东西,也就是说,它们对时间的把握,受制于对手动作。
然。唯吾国武术编出五花八门套路。学徒由“霍曼‘,”开赛’到‘可乐醉尔“,由浅入深练下去,简直就是形体的练习曲。然后要在师傅、兄弟面前表演。散打之前,先练套路。本朝建立,散打几乎被禁,所谓武术,除了侦察兵,公安兵外,大凡都是表演性武术. 乃至当然包括港台的功夫片。打个热火朝天,全是choreographed. 俩江湖兄弟(当年毛小伙子)曾给俺献艺,打着打着,中间一个本事高的,厉声警告对方,没按套路出手,犯规。 因为这想象中的敌情、对手错综复杂,这节奏于是也丰富了起来。你听那京戏的武打锣鼓,就很有切分音的妙处。
〉在舞蹈中,时间的把握全服从于自我的表现,艺术就在这时间把握中。当然体育武术和舞蹈的综合形式比如自由体操,花样滑冰,表演性武术等,这又是另一类别。
斯特拉文斯基的“现代”音乐的灵感,是俄罗斯的民间音乐。俄罗斯的民间音乐和非洲音乐有什么联系,这又是另一个问题了。嗯,这个又是一个不小的话题。这家伙当然是到了法国以后才实践了很多革命的。他和那个编舞的什么斯基,谁影响了谁,似乎也不是很简单的事。作曲斯基的芭蕾音乐在火鸟和春之祭里似乎体会不了多少俄罗斯的味道。他倒是说没有人比柴斯基更俄罗斯。音阶往往是东方的一塌糊涂,法国“印象派”的传染病。节奏是大革命。德彪西、拉威尔所没有的东西。一直想认真全面地学习一下,尚未如愿。
西方古典音乐和舞蹈,是西方大师们的卫生产品,是意念统帅的艺术。到了浪漫后期,艺术家们觉得这卫生艺术太卫生了,缺乏野味,非洲和其他地方的音乐才被用来作调料。
连非洲材料都被用完了,真正的危机感就来了。 - posted on 03/12/2010
走半路又转回身来,两句话没讲好:
WuYing wrote:拉威尔的钢琴左手协奏曲实际上有很多想jazz的东西。他对那一套有浓厚的兴趣。Gershwin 去法国,想拜他为师。拉老是顾左右而言他,总是想着法子让Gershwin给演奏美国jazz种种。师傅不教徒弟,却偷学徒的艺,不够厚道。
节奏是大革命。德彪西、拉威尔所没有的东西。
另一件。斯文斯基的音乐,冷不防还是透出俄罗斯来。比如三乐章的交响曲。劈头盖脑,不留神以为是肖斯塔克维奇。慢慢地音乐才走向“正轨”,还搞它的切分音。
有意思的是,苏联作曲家也想写jazz, 无奈何在红色专政下没有exchange programs, 想当然的作了自己以为是jazz 的东西。美国人听了整个一个“浑不似”。坏事也是好事,我们听起来,倒是别有一番风味,比方肖斯塔克维奇的尝试。
到了红色中国,只知道jazz 是坏东西,不知道有多坏。一个“红岩”电影出来,一帮军统听jazz, 才知道外面的酒还是很香的。红色文化,无心插柳柳成荫。
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