谈谈种族的绝灭
读腓力普二世期间拉美的种族绝灭,又想到达尔文论述的种族灭绝。种族灭绝这个
词常听闻,但具体一些的论述却不多见,尤其是耐得住时间考验的。我暂时把这个
问题的感性一面摒弃一下,谈一谈看得见的历史上的种族灭绝,也算是咖啡人类学
的一道论题。
电影不好论,电视更煽情,还是书本来得扎实一些。种族的问题,在中国这种主张
大混血的文化中倒不突出,但世界走向国际,宗教与文化冲突,许多问题去追上你,
避都避不及。记得在亚马逊一只船上与一些人类学家,昆虫学家讨论人类的未来,
都说很可怕。等级制肯定是不得已,另外能否开拓火星,挖地穴,移民海底都是下
一步。要是人口就这么长的化,人道主义只能是调味剂。
达尔文论种族绝灭,一开篇就引用洪堡举的例,我以为很有诗意,便摹写自然笔记
一篇,
自然笔记:绝灭
当一只鹦鹉
还在说着某个部落
某一种语言的
某几个字眼
人,已经绝灭
粗大的建筑物
断碑残碣
木器、石器
已不为他人所识
更没有传说
倘或有些残余
零落的部民
存活于穷山僻壤之间
不复记忆
昨天在Joey的贴子下引了一段英文,早先殖民时代的原住民悲剧。矿产?钻石黄金
白银,Potosi,我还是原样照搬到这里:
By the time the labour structure in the Indies was collpsing, not under
the pressure for reform but under the impact of demographic catastrophe.
As Spaniards penetrated the remote territories they brought with them
new viruses, particularly smallpox, to which the natives had no immunity
and which caused devastating epidemics. The unaccustomed labour
obligations (for Las Casas, 'the greatest evil which has caused the total
destruction of those lands...is the encomienda'), the wholesale disruption
of communities, the cruelties of the Spaniards(the Franciscan Motolinia,
one of the 'twelve' who came to Mexico in 1524, gave a grim catalogue
of mines where you could not walk for the bones of dead Indians and
where the skies were darkened by scavenging vultures), all had their
effect. In central Mexico the Indian population declined rapidly from
about 25.2 million in 1518 to 2.65m in 1568 and just over one million in
1605; in Peru a preconquest population of about nine million fell to some
600,000 in 1620. As the work-force shrank, the encomiendas became
impractical: the authorities stepped in and organised a system, known in
Mexico as the repartimiento and in Peru by the pre-Spanish term mita,
by which available labour was leased out to estate owners for limited
periods.
Encomienda, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encomienda
Repartimiento, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repartimiento
Mita, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mita_(Inca)
这些看起来有点危言耸听,世界局部的种族绝灭,近现代一样有,犹太人在文明世
界中最倒霉,文明世界有他们首创之功。当代也不是没有,不止是原住民,宗教冲
突,种族灭绝,虽然是局部的。
我喜欢具体一些的事例,而不是情感臆象愤发。列维-斯特劳斯在巴西亚马逊探访的
那些原住民,当时就频临灭绝,现在土地都没有了。如果是都要城里去打工了还好,
但南美那经济状况,谈保护原住民也是奢侈。
to be continued...
- Re: 谈谈种族的灭绝posted on 03/18/2010
xw的思维也够跳跃的,一时间没想好该怎么接茬。是说文明的更替吧、被革掉的命吧,这种更替是否一定要通过血腥方式的擦掉重写?从这么大的时空尺度上来说,就像恐龙文明被暴力灭绝了,才有哺乳动物文明的兴盛,对于地球来说未必不是好事。哪天人类动物全部灭绝了,留下老鼠统治世界,对人类的末日不过是地球的另一个明天,但是,难在我们毕竟是人,还是不能从自然的本位去说这话。 - Re: 谈谈种族的灭绝posted on 03/18/2010
老鼠不就演化成了人?下一轮未必哺乳类,也许是鸟类。
人类还是有希望把一部分改造成超人的,如果上帝只关爱人类。 - Re: 谈谈种族的灭绝posted on 03/18/2010
xw说的种族是race还是species(物种)?
物种的灭绝是自然过程,人当然早晚要灭绝的。种族,现在生物界、人类学界都很质疑这个词的validity,这个不是PC,是说scientific-based的界定。种族我看来更是一个文化上的概念,所谓不同种族的差别真正的是一个文化上的差别,种族灭绝也就是文化/文明的相互取代,有点儿社会达尔文了我。
这么说也是Joey的那个意思。不过,这文明好像是人类特有的,不能说恐龙文明吧,当然,我这又是人本位了:) - posted on 03/18/2010
吉本在总结罗马帝国衰亡中提到一个重要命题,就是欧洲一轮文明会不会再遭野蛮
侵袭。欧洲中心论者都把匈奴人,蒙古人当野蛮人,岂不知当年罗马称的野兽人正
是现在多瑙河北面的欧洲人,还有西北欧原住民凯尔特人。这一轮以西北欧为代表
的人类文明正好发生在古罗马人称的蛮地。几何时,因为宗教、文化分歧,民族风
俗迥异而指称对方Savage也常有的。穆斯林骠悍,而与穆斯林交练的十字军更骠
悍。这些都还是古罗马Legion的传统,都是文明的承继。文明有多少混同?
英国人被多次侵扰混血,按凯撒战记提到当初凯尔特人十几人共一妻,也许未观察
清晰。以后盎格鲁撒克逊,以后诺曼人入侵。中间维京人一直在海岸侵扰不断。英
国也是一个很混血的民族。我一直提到印度的混,看来英国是其祖辈。记得上回提
到西班牙的混,是引述康德《实用人类学》的,并提到西班牙人在新大陆的混。这
些我以为与绝灭是迥异,是一种更文明的路途。
但这些混血多绝没人性,多是女人的成绩。而人的生与死,文化交汇,都是轰天裂
地的事,哪里会那么和风细雨。就说中国这一轮阵痛,也是打自乾隆末年至今,内
闹外闹的,好不容易才能跟人玩平等的游戏。文明的游戏价码是很高的。
我把达尔文引用的一些种族灭绝的文献先引一下。其实就连种族,很多时候也说不
清,就估计暂称一下种族灭绝:
When Tasmania was first colonised the natives were roughly estimated
by some at 7000 and by others at 20,000. Their number was soon greatly
reduced, chiefly by fighting with the English and with each other.
After the famous hunt by all the colonists, when the remaining natives
delivered themselves up to the government, they consisted only of
120 individuals,* who were in 1832 transported to Flinders Island.
This island, situated between Tasmania and Australia, is forty miles
long, and from twelve to eighteen miles broad: it seems healthy, and
the natives were well treated. Nevertheless, they suffered greatly
in health. In 1834 they consisted (Bonwick, p. 250) of forty-seven
adult males, forty-eight adult females, and sixteen children, or in
all of 111 souls. In 1835 only one hundred were left. As they
continued rapidly to decrease, and as they themselves thought that
they should not perish so quickly elsewhere, they were removed in 1847
to Oyster Cove in the southern part of Tasmania. They then consisted
(Dec. 20th, 1847) of fourteen men, twenty-two women and ten
children.*(2) But the change of site did no good. Disease and death
still pursued them, and in 1864 one man (who died in 1869), and
three elderly women alone survived. The infertility of the women is
even a more remarkable fact than the liability of all to ill-health
and death. At the time when only nine women were left at Oyster
Cove, they told Mr. Bonwick (p. 386), that only two had ever borne
children: and these two had together produced only three children!
* All the statements here given are taken from The Last of the
Tasmanians, by J. Bonwick, 1870.
*(2) This is the statement of the Governor of Tasmania, Sir W.
Denison, Varieties of Vice-Regal Life, 1870, vol. i., p. 67.
With respect to the cause of this extraordinary state of things, Dr.
Story remarks that death followed the attempts to civilise the
natives. "If left to themselves to roam as they were wont and
undisturbed, they would have reared more children, and there would
have been less mortality." Another careful observer of the natives,
Mr. Davis, remarks, "The births have been few and the deaths numerous.
This may have been in a great measure owing to their change of
living and food; but more so to their banishment from the mainland
of Van Diemen's Land, and consequent depression of spirits"
(Bonwick, pp. 388, 390).
Similar facts have been observed in two widely different parts of
Australia. The celebrated explorer, Mr. Gregory, told Mr. Bonwick,
that in Queensland "the want of reproduction was being already felt
with the blacks, even in the most recently settled parts, and that
decay would set in." Of thirteen aborigines from Shark's Bay who
visited Murchison River, twelve died of consumption within three
months.*
* For these cases, see Bonwick's Daily Life of the Tasmanians, 1870,
p. 90: and The Last of the Tasmanians, 1870, p. 386.
The decrease of the Maories of New Zealand has been carefully
investigated by Mr. Fenton, in an admirable report, from which all the
following statements, with one exception, are taken.* The decrease
in number since 1830 is admitted by every one, including the natives
themselves, and is still steadily progressing. Although it has
hitherto been found impossible to take an actual census of the
natives, their numbers were carefully estimated by residents in many
districts. The result seems trustworthy, and shows that during the
fourteen years, previous to 1858, the decrease was 19.42 per cent.
Some of the tribes, thus carefully examined, lived above a hundred
miles apart, some on the coast, some inland; and their means of
subsistence and habits differed to a certain extent (p. 28). The total
number in 1858 was believed to be 53,700, and in 1872, after a
second interval of fourteen years, another census was taken, and the
number is given as only 36,359, shewing a decrease of 32.29 per
cent!*(2) Mr. Fenton, after shewing in detail the insufficiency of the
various causes, usually assigned in explanation of this
extraordinary decrease, such as new diseases, the profligacy of the
women, drunkenness, wars, &c., concludes on weighty grounds that it
depends chiefly on the unproductiveness of the women, and on the
extraordinary mortality of the young children (pp. 31, 34). In proof
of this he shews (p. 33) that in 1844 there was one non-adult for
every 2.57 adults; whereas in 1858 there was only one non-adult for
every 3.27 adults. The mortality of the adults is also great. He
adduces as a further cause of the decrease the inequality of the
sexes; for fewer females are born than males. To this latter point,
depending perhaps on a widely distinct cause, I shall return in a
future chapter. Mr. Fenton contrasts with astonishment the decrease in
New Zealand with the increase in Ireland; countries not very
dissimilar in climate, and where the inhabitants now follow nearly
similar habits. The Maories themselves (p. 35) "attribute their
decadence, in some measure, to the introduction of new food and
clothing, and the attendant change of habits"; and it will be seen,
when we consider the influence of changed conditions on fertility,
that they are probably right. The diminution began between the years
1830 and 1840; and Mr. Fenton shews (p. 40) that about 1830, the art
of manufacturing putrid corn (maize), by long steeping in water, was
discovered and largely practised; and this proves that a change of
habits was beginning amongst the natives, even when New Zealand was
only thinly inhabited by Europeans. When I visited the Bay of
Islands in 1835, the dress and food of the inhabitants had already
been much modified: they raised potatoes, maize, and other
agricultural produce, and exchanged them for English manufactured
goods and tobacco.
* Observations on the Aboriginal Inhabitants of New Zealand,
published by the Government, 1859.
*(2) New Zealand, by Alex. Kennedy, 1873, p. 47.
以前“野蛮人”没有在古典国家民族面前衰弱下去,今天,他们在近代文明民族国家
面前衰亡了。
各个民族国家进行竞争,所由取胜的因素不一,其中最主要的一个似乎就是文明所
已达成的等级,越高就越有利。不多几个世纪以前,欧洲人还深怕东方半开化人的
入侵,如今如果还有人怕,那就成了杞人忧天了。
to be continued...
- Re: 谈谈种族的灭绝posted on 03/18/2010
是Race,我第二节提到的。
浮生 wrote:
xw说的种族是race还是species(物种)?
- Re: 谈谈种族的灭绝posted on 03/18/2010
xw wrote:
是Race,我第二节提到的。
我本来就是明知故问哈,只是觉说说又混起来。再有就是种族这个概念。
文明有多少混同?
全是混同,这是我的结论,剩下只需要证据啦:) - posted on 03/19/2010
以前我到新泽西的Sandy Hook,看到一种类似的李子,很想吃。查询植物手册,
是一种Beach Plum,书中带着一个印弟安部落名,是Cherokee还是Mohican现
在都记不得了。上网查询也只能查到Beach Plum这个名。在我们生存的周围,有
许多当地印弟安名称留下来,有些好记,有些不好记。读法也因人而已,原则上
说对我这个东亚人应该不难,可是乍接触下,比洋人读我们的名还觉得离奇。
偶尔明月的晚上,我觉得窗前赏月不够,便驱车到住家附近的湖泊。宁静的夜,月
悬湖上,远山一抹低平,真感慨这美好的江山,可用万年。又想到名称后面的原住
民,在纽约州,估计只有不大的一块地,经过十五年讨价还价,奥内达人终于重获
纽约北部五百公顷土地的所有权。这片土地在Syracuse和Roma之间,四周有一些
病歪歪的树,几家当地的小企业开设在那里,所得的经济利益极有限。然而,1985
年美国最高法院终于判决,承认当地奥内达人部落拥有这块土地。
浮生对种族存疑,有人把种族的灭绝与种族灭绝等观,这些都太现代,太高屋筑瓴。
就是达尔文也对种族生理差异的断然性存疑,并提出人类文化成份,变异,自然与
性选择。要讨论问题,总得有些基本假定或前提,即使有不牢靠的地方,也可以方
便谈一些事实,使谈论有条理,有依据。人类自己的问题总不能停留在不可说不可
言的境地。
刚打电话给Sandy Hook公园管理处,他们也只知道Beach Plum名,还让我请教
Local Indian问题专家。唉,我晚上回去查一下书就是了。
有许多的感恩节我都想写一首真正符合美国感恩节情状的诗,却一直不能。怕都只
是老调重弹,现在我还是可以把北美原住民,尤其是东北部易洛魁等部民“失踪”
的情节陈述一下。一般书本要么谈得极专业,要么就是五月花,还有那个冬天,下
面的就是南瓜节火鸡节了。不是我吃饱了撑,我吃饭从来三分饱,但易洛魁人的土
地上没了易洛魁人总还是让人不能好睡的一桩大事情。
十八世纪末,消尼人(Shawnee)的酋长Tecumseh回想当年的情景,在鼓舞原住民
路美国人作战时说:“今天,佩科特族又在哪里?纳拉甘西特族、摩和克族、帕卡诺凯
族,以及往昔如此强大的部族,他们今天又在哪里?面对白人的劫掠和压迫,他们
消失了,就象冰雪在夏日的阳光下消融,化为乌有。”……毛皮,尤其是狸皮,美
洲大陆上的Micmac人和Malecite人与法国人做毛皮交易。十七和十八世纪,欧洲毛
皮需要量增加,北美大陆成了欧洲毛皮市场的产地……供给毛皮的责任就落在原住
民身上。
1608年法国Champlain来到魁北克,1609年英国Hudson探险,并激励荷兰人占领
河口的曼哈顿岛。1607年Jamestown,1620年“五月花号”(Mayflower)清教徒。
北欧毛皮商来了就去,象捕鲸的巴斯克,晒鱼干的维京人(东北美可是早有维京人的
足迹),清教徒则需要这一块土地。在他们眼中,原住民是“残酷的原始人,甚至是
撒旦的子弟”!原住民怎么样呢?书上说“印弟安人对待外来人很大方,白人却报以凶残。
他们虐待儿童,不许别人擅自进入自己家中,不愿请人吃饭。更惊人的是,他们
‘吃木头(面包)’,‘渴鲜血(葡萄酒)。”陌生人相见,人群的世界,冲突总是不
得已。我看法国的大片哥伦布,不敢想象哥伦布那样的理想主义,人群中的事情多
复杂啊。但凭哥伦布第一次航海游记看一种尚且和平,就是没有记载梅毒怎么传回
去,可见略去了太多,不说作伪。
文字是很可怕的,就象文明是一把双韧剑。但文字中能存留一点客体,让别人能多
知道一点东西,就不错了。我尽量罗列一些事实,数据,还有图表什么的东西。让
这一线有些实在的内容,即使文采不够又有什么关系呢?
英国人与原住民在维吉尼亚和新英格兰打仗,很特征殖民者与原住民的冲突,就不
多说了,里面有一个Pacahontas的传奇,被后人夸大。一个英国商人被杀,Pequot
War爆发,Pequot拒绝承认,遭到镇压,Connecticut和massachusetts也难逃清教徒
讨伐。只剩下万帕诺亚格人了,当酋长的儿子Wamsutta把土地卖给其他殖民者时,
清教徒提异议,认为他无权这样做。于是他被英国殖民当局如到普利柔斯,死因不
明。Wamsutta的继承者Metacom联系其他部洛,让他们了解英国人多么无耻:“这些
来自陌生人世界的人,滥伐我们的森林,毁坏我们的猎场,把我们赶走。害得我们
和孩子远离祖坟,妻女沦为奴隶。”
所有英国殖民地都联合起来,甚至还向Mohican和Mohawk部落发号如召。莫希干和摩
和克本是阿尔冈昆人的死敌。战争数月结果英国人死了六百人,原住民四千多人。
原住民部落内部的战争,易洛魁崛起,战争,都是为了毛皮,暂措笔几节笔记,
读史笔记:毛皮
米克马克人祖辈
打鱼为生,和
紧邻部落交换水獭皮
为了毛皮的需求
变成了猎人和商人
生活方式改变
也改变了饮食结构
如此一来,他们
全得依赖白人
耕种为生的土著
休伦人与易洛魁人
男人偶尔打猎
女人加工毛皮
共照管田园
如今,他们不得不
处理数量众多的毛皮
田园荒芜,生计
全仰赖毛皮贸易
战争,是一帖“医治死亡的药”。俘虏来的敌人可以代替本族死者继续活下来,以
确保种族延续。
to be continued...
- posted on 03/19/2010
写北美原住民极不容易,那么多部落名称,地名,怪怪的翻译,即使英译也不好记。
北美原住民比起赤道一带以及太平洋岛屿的原住民,战争力强得多。太平洋岛屿
中夏威夷还行,最强的当然是新西兰的毛利人。大溪地是一种文化,毛利也是一种。
广泛地说波利尼西亚人多被称为毛利,高更的书中就这么称呼。可见同样的人,在
不同的生态环境确实不一样。中美洲的原住民灭绝得快,南美洲潘帕斯倒是象北美
一个展开战斗。极南美的巴塔戈尼亚人,火地岛人也不很具战斗力。我上回去火地
岛,只剩下一个孤身土著女人,没有生育,住在对面智利小镇。
相比之下,极北的爱斯基摩人(Inuit),无论阿拉斯加或西部加拿大尚存。纽芬兰的
伊努人原住民就惨得多了,也是当年皮毛生意做得过了头。
易洛魁的崛起与战争,我想晚上找充分了资料再续。先把同样另一块美国的地方,
夏威夷土著灭绝的状态提一下。因为资料现成,取于达尔文。一般人们去夏威夷,
以为那里的土著很多,其实多是混血的。纯粹的依达尔文列表一度曾只有五万,夏
威夷经探险家Cook发现后,一直叫Sandwich Isl.,
当然很长一段时间都是英国势力范围:
The decrease of the native population of the Sandwich Islands is
as notorious as that of New Zealand. It has been roughly estimated
by those best capable of judging, that when Cook discovered the
islands in 1779, the population amounted to about 300,000. According
to a loose census in 1823, the numbers then were 142,050. In 1832, and
at several subsequent periods, an accurate census was officially
taken, but I have been able to obtain only the following returns:
Native Population Annual rate of decrease
We here see that in the interval of forty years, between 1832 and
per cent, assuming it to
(Except during 1832 and have been uniform between
1836, when the few the successive censuses;
foreigners in the islands these censuses being taken
Year were included.) at irregular intervals.
1832 130,313
4.46
1836 108,579
2.47
1853 71,019
0.81
1860 67,084
2.18
1866 58,765
2.17
1872 51,531
1872, the population has decreased no less than sixty-eight per
cent! This has been attributed by most writers to the profligacy of
the women, to former bloody wars, and to the severe labour imposed
on conquered tribes and to newly introduced diseases, which have
been on several occasions extremely destructive. No doubt these and
other such causes have been highly efficient, and may account for
the extraordinary rate of decrease between the years 1832 and 1836;
but the most potent of all the causes seems to be lessened
fertility. According to Dr. Ruschenberger of the U. S. Navy, who
visited these islands between 1835 and 1837, in one district of
Hawaii, only twenty-five men out of 1134, and in another district only
ten out of 637, had a family with as many as three children. Of eighty
married women, only thirty-nine had ever borne children; and "the
official report gives an average of half a child to each married
couple in the whole island." This is almost exactly the same average
as with the Tasmanians at Oyster Cove. Jarves, who published his
History in 1843, says that "families who have three children are freed
from all taxes; those having more, are rewarded by gifts of land and
other encouragements." This unparalleled enactment by the government
well shews how infertile the race had become. The Rev. A. Bishop
stated in the Hawaiian Spectator in 1839, that a large proportion of
the children die at early ages, and Bishop Staley informs me that this
is still the case, just as in New Zealand. This has been attributed to
the neglect of the children by the women, but it is probably in
large part due to innate weakness of constitution in the children,
in relation to the lessened fertility of their parents. There is,
moreover, a further resemblance to the case of New Zealand, in the
fact that there is a large excess of male over female births: the
census of 1872 gives 31,650 males to 25,247 females of all ages,
that is 125.36 males for every 100 females; whereas in all civilised
countries the females exceed the males. No doubt the profligacy of the
women may in part account for their small fertility; but their changed
habits of life is a much more probable cause, and which will at the
same time account for the increased mortality, especially of the
children. The islands were visited by Cook in 1779, Vancouver in 1794,
and often subsequently by whalers. In 1819 missionaries arrived, and
found that idolatry had been already abolished and other changes
effected by the king. After this period there was a rapid change in
almost all the habits of life of the natives, and they soon became
"the most civilised of the Pacific Islanders." One of my informants,
Mr. Coan, who was born on the islands, remarks that the natives have
undergone a greater change in their habits of life in the course of
fifty years than Englishmen during a thousand years. From
information received from Bishop Staley, it does not appear that the
poorer classes have ever much changed their diet, although many new
kinds of fruit have been introduced, and the sugar-cane is in
universal use. Owing, however, to their passion for imitating
Europeans, they altered their manner of dressing at an early period,
and the use of alcoholic drinks became very general. Although these
changes appear inconsiderable, I can well believe, from what is
known with respect to animals, that they might suffice to lessen the
fertility of the natives.*
* The foregoing statements are taken chiefly from the following
works: Jarves' History of the Hawaiian Islands, 1843, pp. 400-407.
Cheever, Life in the Sandwich Islands, 1851, p. 277. Ruschenberger
is quoted by Bonwick, Last of the Tasmanians, 1870, p. 378. Bishop
is quoted by Sir E. Belcher, Voyage Round the World, 1843, vol. i., p.
272. I owe the census of the several years to the kindness of Mr.
Coan, at the request of Dr. Youmans of New York; and in most cases I
have compared the Youmans figures with those given in several of the
above-named works. I have omitted the census for 1850, as I have
seen two widely different numbers given.
一八六六到一八七二年的两次普查之间,夏威夷诸岛上的纯血统土著减少了八千,而
在同一期限内,被认为是比较健康的混血人口却增加了八百四十七人。这里混血人
口不知包不包括第一代混血人口的子女,或仅仅指第一代而言。
我再附一张美国原住民的地域分布资料,正好上面还有夏威夷的零星小岛系列。
To be continued... - Re: 谈谈种族的灭绝posted on 03/19/2010
嗯,我理解得远了。xw还是很专注在说原著民文明的命运。如下这样的事实,也是无奈的事:
生活方式改变
也改变了饮食结构
如此一来,他们
全得依赖白人
如今在中国比如云贵西藏等地也发生同样的事情,外面的市场经济侵入了原住民祖祖辈辈生活的地方,打乱了他们的生活,他们自己都叹到,原本我们都快快乐乐,穷归穷但我们习惯了,都是你们这些汉人,让我们过新生活,高兴几天,然后就是长期的问题,人生也越来越被动了。 - posted on 03/19/2010
倒也不只这一端。这一方面的事情说的多,具体知道的也少,一拿出来说,往往是
争吵的时候。我还不如乘咖啡清静地时候把这些整理一番。达尔文叙述夏威夷土著
亲历中有这样一节引言,
After this period there was a rapid change in almost all the habits of life of the natives, and they soon became "the most civilised of the Pacific Islanders."
One of my informants, Mr. Coan, who was born on the islands, remarks that the natives have undergone a greater change in their habits of life in the course of
fifty years than Englishmen during a thousand years.
我觉得这一段,自我心历也感触良深的。
Joey wrote:
嗯,我理解得远了。xw还是很专注在说原著民文明的命运。如下这样的事实,也是无奈的事:
生活方式改变
也改变了饮食结构
如此一来,他们
全得依赖白人
如今在中国比如云贵西藏等地也发生同样的事情,外面的市场经济侵入了原住民祖祖辈辈生活的地方,打乱了他们的生活,他们自己都叹到,原本我们都快快乐乐,穷归穷但我们习惯了,都是你们这些汉人,让我们过新生活,高兴几天,然后就是长期的问题,人生也越来越被动了。
以前真没把毛皮当一回事,只觉得除了黄金就是香料。但单一的经济型,就容易导致
香蕉共和国的问题。
- posted on 03/20/2010
“逼近如狐狸,搏斗如恶狼,消失如飞鸟”,易洛魁联盟由五个部落组成,摩和克族、
奥内达族(Oneida)、奥农达加族(Onondaga)、卡尤加族(Cayuga)和赛内卡族(Seneca)。
这五个部落都希冀拥有名声与权务,联盟不稳定。五大部落,十六世纪离开圣劳伦
河,可能是被欧洲疫病驱赶,迁往安大略湖南面,在此重整。
以前人类是不是一个种类还是问题,人类学家也还稀奇,倒是有许多对人种感兴趣
的贤人,蒙田就被称人种学家。那时人种有多少都不确实,人类认识总是慢慢积累
的,积累过程也是一部历史。从物种起源看来,种的确定本身即是个很人为的事情。
当然把人类定为一个种是很善良的规定,种下分亚种,亚种下族,部族还是部落,
国家、民族之类的就离生理远了。这些说说怕有些过时,但至少有一样,就是不可
以把他人当异种,或牲畜奴隶,生杀随意,这同种的人类。分歧自然有,三六九等
从人的眼神中都能看出来,在语言文化民族国家宗教等还有分野前,谈谈种族的灭
绝也不是太不合时宜。以后的事情谁能说得定,如果历史作为是前车之谏。
东北美当时的欧洲势力有法、英、荷,法国人在圣劳伦斯河安家,选了休伦人的营。
休伦人是农人,共有四个部落,与易洛魁中隔烟草族和中立族。休伦人与易洛魁虽
属一族,交战不断。休伦人与法国人结盟,有法国武备。阿尔冈昆人拥有毛皮,休
伦人作为法国人中介,谋取暴利。易洛魁人在阿尔冈昆人和荷兰人中间作毛皮倒卖
生意。荷兰人同意为他们提供武器弹药补给。其时,摩和克人仗着荷兰人的武器一
直称难东部。
休伦人与阿尔冈昆人欲联合进攻易洛魁,法国不愿提供足够军备。易洛魁上下一心,
愈战愈强。毛皮战争无休无止,残酷无情。战争中印弟安人手足相残。结局总是某
些部落彻底灭亡,这个与南方的阿兹特克帝国周边有些相似。
易洛魁战争约始于1630年,摩和克人猛烈进攻渥太华的阿尔冈昆人。十年后同一批
摩和克人又大规模进攻法国人,还有法国盟军Abenaki。这十年易洛魁五部落发展出
部队组织,从荷兰人、英国人那时获得珍贵的枪炮。他们的目的很明确,粉碎休伦
人的强权,控制整个东北美的毛皮市场,令法国人也跟他们做生意。他们制造恐怖
气氛,切断毛皮交易之路。为达目的,易洛魁人埋伏在河流两岸,捣毁渡船,屠杀
其他印弟安人,劫持法国人作人质。从大西洋沿岸到五大湖区,到处都有这类袭击。
休伦人村庄一个个被毁,不过几年就几乎一个不剩了。1649-50年冬,易洛魁进入安
大略腹地,威协中立族,又往回攻击伊利人,只为伊利人曾接待逃亡的休伦人。伊
利人控制的Ohio谷地狸众多,是易洛魁毛皮生意的上好猎地。五十年之争,易洛魁
崛起!
从1657到1667,法国人与印弟安之间第四次易洛魁战争。易洛魁人有英荷装备,把
法国人打得措手不及。只好向法王求救,法王路易十四派千余精兵,装备大炮,向
易洛魁反扑。1667年易洛魁各部联盟代表到魁北克向法国求和,签定和约。
易洛魁人消灭了主要的印弟安对手,独占毛皮生意。这时他们要面对的是两大欧洲
强国,法国和英国。正是这两国互相勾结,企图瓜分北美大陆。半个世纪后,东北
美的印弟安几尽瓦解,除了战争,就是疫病。在欧洲文明面前印弟安的没落不可避
免。前面提到对白人的依赖,欧洲文明渗透到原住民的生活的各方面,尤其是女性。
英国人除了Quaker ,都不承认印弟安人的土地所有权。《圣经》上说:“上帝把他
们引到这里,这地方就是他们的”。政府只期望以最少的费用,从殖民地获得最大
利益,粮食,毛皮,土地还有和平。彩色玻璃珠、铁器、衣服、烈酒、武器都是给
酋长的礼品。白人与印弟安人间玩着一种复杂的政治游戏,军事要塞成为主角。有
时,印弟安人和白人建立友谊,接待一些白人少年学习语言,了解印弟安人风俗习
惯。
教会坚决反对和印弟安人通婚,把通婚当作“放荡与奢侈”。易洛魁女人有被猎人
偷养,充当向导,翻译,顾问,改善白人与土著关系。传教士允许的至多是和受洗
印弟安女人通婚。“假如你们像嘴上说的那样爱我们的灵魂,那就请也爱我们的肉
体吧。”法国男人对印弟安女人着迷,英国与荷兰人似乎那么动心,清教徒。印弟
安女人心里比较喜欢白人丈夫,因为他们不像印弟安男人那么粗暴。白人给的小礼
物也令她们感到光彩,她们在部落 的地位因此不断上升。和欧洲男人相比,印弟安
男人更能接受这种结合。
印弟安人中结婚与离婚都很随便,姑娘的性行为很自由,同性恋也盛行。在传教士
看来这些都是“撒旦和罪恶作崇”。印弟安人特别看重梦,他们不能容忍传教士诋
毁神谕,视梦为儿戏。他们也不能苟同教士对他们性关系的指责,改宗的印弟安人
临终还希望得到印弟安式安葬,归还祖宗的土地。
比战争更加可怕的,是白人带来的传染病。天花,麻疹,霍乱,由渔民和探险家带
入,猎人和士兵传播,把一个个部落整个从地图上抹去。印弟安人爱酒如命。他们
不知道酒精对身体的伤害,迷醉于幻觉之中,幻觉在他们的文化中意义非常。
1756年,英法七年战争,把整个东部大陆变成一片血海。五万英兵前来支援殖民者
与易洛魁人,法国人则动员了所有西部印弟安盟友。1763年法国战败,密西西比河
以东全归英帝国治下,东北美的新法兰西帝国不复。
法国人战败使印弟安人直接与英国冲突。英国将军Amherst派手下在村庄传播天花。
1784 年,斯担尼克斯堡条约签订,易洛魁人割让Ohio全部土地。美国独立战争,印
弟安部落中介两边,美国独立后,印弟安又是首当其冲。一路往西迁移,归化,迁
往保留地。西进运动,Buffalo Bill's Wild West, 我只能提到一点东北美。
最后附一张美国原住民分布的示意图,我觉得汉语译名都还不错:
不打上一仗,就让我们全民族毁灭吗?要我们放弃这一切亲切而又神圣的东西,放弃
那伟大的神灵所留给我们的国土,放弃祖宗的坟墓吧?决不!决不!
--肖尼人酋长:特库姆塞
&
另外,Plum查到了,叫Chickasaw Plum,契卡索人(土著)http://www.chickasaw.net/ - posted on 03/20/2010
再补充几个字,
昨晚扫描了一幅图,可是怎么处理也不清晰,只好在网上找了一幅替代。幸好,那
更是当前一些的。没有易洛魁,我扫描的图是十九世纪初主要印弟安部落,画在一
张约莫水牛皮上,画者Pierre-Marie Valat,画法本身就够辞修:
一张水牛皮上
许多部落
生计,全仰赖毛皮
水牛灭绝了
与虎谋皮?
&
前面提到英国将军Amherst派手下在村庄传播天花,后Amherst是北美英国总督。
关于传播天花,记得南美也有这种战术,甚至娱乐,列维-斯特劳斯在陈述巴西圣保
罗邦时写道:
那种娱乐,或许他年轻的时候也仍然进行过的那种娱乐活动,到医院去收集天花患
者的衣服,然后把那些有天花传染菌的衣物和其他礼物一起挂在印弟安人经常走过
的小径上。这种休闲活动造成相当可观的成果:1918年地图上面的圣保罗邦,面积
和法国差不多,其中三分之二的地方被标示为“只住印弟安人的未知地带”;等1935年
我到圣保罗的时候,那些地方连一个印弟安人也没有,除了少数几家人在礼拜天常
跑到山托斯(Santos)海滩去卖所谓的特产外。值得庆幸的是,圣保罗郊区在1935年
虽然一个印弟安人都没有,但往内陆走个三千公里,还是可以找到一些印弟安人。
&
关于人种学家。1881年,出版了一本书,题为A Century of Dishonor,Helen Hunt
Jackson夫人在书中指责政府的印弟安政策,揭露政府官员犯下的种种罪行:欺压弱
者,偏颇不公,贪污腐化。随后,研究机构史密森学会所属的美国人种学研究所所
了一次调查,结果汇集成书《美国印弟安人手册》。
人种学家,例如克罗伯(Croeber),鲍亚士(Boas)等纷纷开讲座,写论文向大众揭示
印弟安文化。1911年美国印弟安人协会成立,致力保存印弟安文化。五年后,塞内
卡部族的印弟安人种学家帕克(Parker)创办了《美国印弟安人杂志》。此杂志既探
讨印弟安人的悠久历史,也介绍他们现状。人种学家休伊特(Hewitt)是印弟安图斯
卡罗拉人,也是帕克的朋友。他们俩共同研究探索如何促进印弟安人融入美国社会。
结论:除了与现代文明同化,印弟安人没有第二条出路。
&
最后我再附一幅Chickasaw Plum的图照。Chickasaw我也寞生,有时间我把美国印弟
部落名称英汉对照系统化一下。今天大周末,谈这些也是余兴。看照:
- posted on 03/26/2010
把读书随便整理的一些北美印弟安人名称陈列一下,增加记忆:
易洛魁人Iroquois,休伦人Huron,德拉华人Delaware,曼哈顿人Manhattan,肖尼人
Shawnee,阿尔冈昆人Algonquin,阿贝那基人Abenaki,米克马克人Micmac,孟霍克
人Mohawk,中立族(),贝奥图克人(),佩诺布斯科特人Penobscot,切罗基人Cherokee,
乔克托人Choctaw,克里克人Creek,纳其兹人Natchez,蒂穆夸人Timucua,索克人
Sauk,福克斯人Fox,迈阿密人Miami,奥吉布瓦人Ojibwa,霍皮人Hopi,纳瓦霍人
Navajo,祖尼人Zuni,木哈夫人Mohave,皮马人Pima.
苏人Sioux,波尼人Pawnee,科曼切人Comanche,夏延人Cheyenne,奥萨格人Osage,
基奥瓦人Kiowa,阿西尼本人Assiniboin,黑脚人Blackfoot,豁鼻人Nez-Perce,肖
肖尼人Shoshone,曼丹人Mandan,波莫人Pomo,迈杜人Maidu,胡帕人Hupa.
夸扣特尔人Kwakiutl,努特卡人Nootka,海达人Haida,特林吉特人Tlingit,钦西
安人Tsimshian,奇佩维安人Chipewyan,克里人().
Seneca塞内加人, Arapaho阿拉伯霍人, Apache阿帕切人, Oglala奥哥拉拉人, Oncida奥
内达人, Onondaga奥农达加人, Pawtuxet波塔克西特人, Potawatomi波塔瓦托米人
, Kiowa基奥瓦人, Catawba卡托巴人, Cayuga卡尤加人, Crow克劳人, Malecite马
莱西特人, Metacom米塔科姆人, Missuri密苏里人, Modoc莫多克人, Mohican莫希
干人, Mohave木哈末人, Narragansett纳拉甘西特人, Pakanoket帕卡诺凯人, Pormcick坡
姆西克人, Chinook奇努克人, Chippewa奇帕瓦人, Secota塞科塔人, Seminole塞米
诺尔人, Santee桑蒂人, Tuscarora图斯卡罗拉人, Wampanoag万帕诺亚格人, Ottawa渥
太华人, Erie伊里人, Chickasaw契卡索人。
密西西比河以西,有两条路可通落基山脉和太平洋岸。北面一条俄勒冈小径,经苏
人和阿拉帕霍人地盘,靠南一条桑塔菲小道,须穿越夏延人的领土。沿途欧洲人把
荒野变耕地,或圈成牧场。不管定居或路经都把猎物杀绝,尤以水牛。这印弟安原
住民唯一的生计。
随铁路修建,大规模屠杀行动越演越烈,用猎物填饱肚皮。印弟安人认为,兽群的
大批死去意谓大难临头。大平原广大辽阔,生态环境薄弱。一直到18世纪末,水牛
与狼群相依共生。狼专门攻击弱病的牛,间接调节了野牛群的素质数目。平原上各
种植被所依养料则是动物粪便和尸体腐化质。
从1870年起猎人大肆捕杀水牛,猎取毛皮,毛皮运到东部做成服装。以畜牧为生
的人也乐于水牛绝迹,因为空出大片旷野可充作牧场。但狼群迅速增殖,缺少水牛,
狠群攻击牛羊。为消灭恶狼,又一场血腥战,猎狼人Wolfer在大平原上毒杀狼群。
狼渐渐消失了,啮齿类动物及印弟安人的狗也逐渐灭绝。面临这种侵犯印弟安人开
始伏击狼人。此外,畜牧业在德克萨斯和堪萨斯的发展,以及随着拓荒者车队而来
的牛群,威胁了野水牛的生存。最后一批水牛死于流行病。“牛神”的末日宣告了
印弟安世界的衰亡。
前不久看到一部纪录片,说Buffalo又起死回生了,象蒙古马一样。
北美大平原上“牛吃人”的景象,在南美潘帕斯有一样的版本。我西班牙史中美洲部
分有这样一段论述:
In the animal sphere the first settlers were obliged to import their own horses for
transport and their own pigs for meat, since America lacked any beasts of burden
(other than the humble llama in Peru) and most domestic animals. Over the years
Spanish vessels brought to the New World all the animals a farmer deemed essential:
cattle, mules, fowl, dogs. Three animals in particular changed the history of America:
the horse, which helped the conquistadors in battle and enable them to cross great
distances; and the sheep and cow, which in their thousands occupied the plains and
semi-deserts, bringing profits to colonial farmers but depriving Indians of land for their
food and thus creating an ecological crisis and an epoch of recurrent famines.
Wherever cattle went, the Indian died; a stark and simple equation. In the biological
sphere, finally, a revolution was initiated by the introduction, among a mass of other
plants and fauna, of three foods considered essential to a native of the
Mediterranean: wheat, vines and olives. By the end of the century wheat, hitherto
unknown, was the most widely cultivated crop in the New World.
记得在西藏的时候,听到汉民的意见,总是用美洲的方式把藏民解决掉算了。他们把
藏民描述得不堪入目,我听了很难受。我观见的藏民,本份是话外,都长得天庭饱
满,气色红润,应该不属于劣等种族。多亏有一个强势的政府,不然民族关系不知
道会弄出怎么个结局,我对新疆都担心。记得伊莎贝拉女王逝前,遗嘱中最关心的
是美洲原住民的问题。当然,从这一个数据看,确实纠心:
For some twenty years after Columbus's first voyage the Spanish enterprise in
America was limited mainly to the West Indies and in large part to one island,
Hispaniola, where the New World's first Spanish city, Santo Domingo, was founded in
1496. By 1500 Hispaniola had a white population, exclusively male, of only one
thousand. As the number of immigrants increased they ventured outwards in search
of two things: slaves, to meet the labour needs in Hispaniola, and land. Warfare,
forced labour, and epidemic disease began to take their toll of the original Taino
inhabitants of Hispaniola: Las Casas was to claim plausibly that three million natives
perished between 1494 and 1508. To replace them, the settlers made slaving raids on
neighbouring islands: some 40,000 natives of the Bahamas, for example, were
transported between 1509 and 1512. In the process the Spaniards also settled the
islands: Puerto Rico from 1508, Cuba from about 1511.
在拉萨我当然听说了八九年三月的那场“镇暴”,兵民冲突,大昭寺滥杀藏民跟日本
鬼子扫荡无别,杀人灭口,焚尸灭迹。有时想想阶级矛盾,民族矛盾确实是无限夸
大的。在许多时候,异民族与鼠虫没有区别。但话又说回来,当今世界令人惊奇的
主要还是阶级,国家利益。我又想到中共政下的“三年自然灾害”,几千万的数字
非个人所能想及。但终归会有一种世界末日的感觉。
记得列维-斯特劳斯曾引有一段关于美洲原住民是否是合格的“人”论述,因为他使
用的是诗的笔触,我更想摘引一下史的笔触:
The struggle to preserve the Indians was one on which the interests of clergy and
crown coincided. The latter, in addition to the issue of principle (queen Isabella had
been opposed to Indian slavery), did not wich the native population removed from
royal jurisdiction. The settlers, on the other hand, relied entirely on labour
exploitation for their profits and held that the Indians in the Caribbean were no better
than beasts. The division of opinion on both sides of the Atlantic began a
controversy of some forty years' duraction that proved to be the first of the great
debates over Spain's imperial role. In 1516 a special commision of Jeronimite friars set
up by Cisneros went to Hispaniola to take evidence from the earliest settlers as to
whether the Indians were capable of living as free beeings, that is like Spaniards. The
evidence, and the commission's judgement, went against the Indians; but the debate
had only just begun...
前头提到Las Casas,他的全名叫Bartolomé de las Casas,象后来巴西的朗顿
,是历史上第一个印弟安人权斗士:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas
the Franciscan Mendieta and the Dominican Las Casas both agreed that God had
given America to Spain not for conquest or exploitation of silver but exclusively for
the salvation of Indian souls.
但,那又是些怎样幼弱的souls呢? The Indians were seen as 'noble savages', 'of such
simplicity and purity of soul that they do not know how to sin', according to the
Franciscan Jeronimo de Mendieta; 'very simple, without evil or duplicity', according
to Las Casas.
to be continued... - Re: 谈谈种族的灭绝posted on 03/26/2010
xw wrote:
阿尔昆冈人Algonquin
阿尔冈昆?
涨知识,请继续。 - Re: 谈谈种族的灭绝posted on 03/26/2010
不知 xw 读不读 Ray Kurzweil?
根据他的计算,计算机将在 2029 年通过图林测试,在 2045 年,计算机的智力将超过人类。这个时间点,他称为 singularity。此后人类在这个星球上不再重要。
好像信他的人不少。NASA 和 Google 最近出资为他(and a couple of other crazy guys)办了个 Singularity University。 - posted on 03/26/2010
谢谢行人纠正一个错序,其实这些名称无论中英(法)都有些乱。
行人 wrote:
不知 xw 读不读 Ray Kurzweil?
根据他的计算,计算机将在 2029 年通过图林测试,在 2045 年,计算机的智力将超过人类。这个时间点,他称为 singularity。此后人类在这个星球上不再重要。
还真没读上,你以前有提?
好像信他的人不少。NASA 和 Google 最近出资为他(and a couple of other crazy guys)办了个 Singularity University。
财大气粗啊!
&
关于民族问题,我还真重读了那一本鲍亚士的Anthropology and modern life,
首章即是对民族的论述。可惜他的论述太“文气”了一点,至少在犹太人一环就过不
了关!
达尔文对民族的生理学论述要好一些,也只是提出问题。
列维的那一节我再抄两段,参考一下:
In what used to be called Hispaniola (today Haiti and Santo Domingo) the native
population numbered about one hundred thousand in 1492, but had dropped to two
hundred a century later, since people died of horror and disgust at European
civilization even more than of smallpox and physical ill-treatment. Commission after
commission was sent out to determine the nature of the inhabitants. If they were
really men, could they be the descendants of the ten lost tribes of Israel? Were they
Mongols who had ridden there on elephants? Or Scotsmen brought over several
centuries before by Prince Modoc? Had they always been baptized by Saint Thomas?
There was some uncertainty about whether they were men, and not diabolical
creatures or beasts. This was King Ferdinand's attitude, since in 1512 he imported
white slave girls into the West Indies with the sole aim of preventing Spaniards
marrying natives 'who were far from being rational creatures'. The colonists' reaction
to Las Casas's attempts to abolish forced labour was one of incredulity rather than
indignation: 'So,' they exclaimed, 'are we even to be deprived of our beasts of
burden?'
Of all these commisions the most deservedly famous was that of the monks of the
Order of Saint Jerome, which is moving, both because of a conscientious approach,
which has been singularly lacking in colonial undertaking since 1517, and because of
the light it throws on the mental attitudes of the period. In the course of what was
tantamount to a psycho-sociological inquiry, conceived according to the most
modern standards, the colonists were required to answer a series of questions, the
purpose of which was to find out if, in their opinion, the Indians were or were
not 'capable of living on their own, like Castilian peasants'. All the replies were
negative: 'At a pinch, their grandchildren may be able to: but the natives are so
completely depraved that even this is very doubtful: witness the fact that they shun
the Spanish and refuse to work without pay while carrying perversity to the point of
giving away their possessions; they do not agree to spurn those of their comades
who have had their ears cut off by the Spanish.' And the unanimous conclusion
was: 'It would be better for the Indians to become human slaves than to remain free
animals ...'
我今天早晨在床头一直想一个问题,要是当年哥伦布朝西航真的到了日本中国的话,
那印弟安人的命运会不会落在中国日本人身上呢?记得蒙古南侵中南,也准备把中
原南方变成一片牧场,象后来在阿拉伯世界一样。
那时是明朝中叶,“土木之变”后,多亏了美洲原住民,多亏有耶律楚材!
- posted on 03/29/2010
a scene in Avatar brought tears to my little girl (and me, too) which made me think of the story of Peachtown and "the Town Destroyer".
George Washington is well known as a great leader to the world but he's known as the Town destroyer to native Americans.
--------
Ode to Town Destroyer
When your army entered the country of the Six Nations, we called you Town Destroyer: and to this day when that name is heard our women look behind them and turn pale, and our children cling close to the necks of their mothers. Our counsellors and warriors are men, and cannot be afraid; but their hearts are grieved with the fears of our women and children, and desire that it may be buried so deep as to be heard no more.
Seneca Chief Cornplanter
To George Washington
1790
http://sullivanclinton.com/ - posted on 04/08/2010
我还是先把玛雅给的不太恰当的英文标题改一下,用达尔文原著中的原标题,既广
泛也免煽情。才把这一线读一遍,不专心,自己还把握不住整体,这些天一直在思
考阿兹特克文化混的问题。上面引Las Casas说的:
In central Mexico the Indian population declined rapidly from about 25.2 million in
1518 to 2.65m in 1568 and just over one million in 1605;
但还是混同了一个上亿人口的国家,墨西哥。这是我提及的西班牙特色的混,在北
美却少可能,前面有引述北美印弟安人的呼求:
“假如你们像嘴上说的那样爱我们的灵魂,那就请也爱我们的肉体吧。”
阿兹特克帝王蒙提祖马二世把国家拱送给科特斯,自招暗算,也是算数将尽,已不
能承受那许多征兆了。我想提他的女儿,在西班牙统治权在新西班牙建立的过程中,
土著妇女扮演了极为重要的角色。土著贵族女儿嫁给征服者作妾,有时甚至作合法
妻子,这类事屡见不鲜。
蒙提祖马二世的女儿特居波钦(Tecuichpotzin),先后嫁给阿兹特克最后两位国王,
奎特拉与克和切奥特莫克。征服者来到后她就受洗了,并取名为伊莎贝尔。特居波
钦十六岁那年,就做了切奥特莫克的遗孀,但多少仍代表阿兹特克王朝的正统,在
新的政治舞台上还是一个不可忽视的人物。经科特斯同意,她可以终身享用塔库巴
城的税赋,然后科特斯又作主,把她嫁给西班牙征服者格拉多(Alonso de Grado)。
印弟安贵妇摇身一变,马上成了西班牙化和信奉基督的楷模。格拉多死后,她在科
特斯的“后宫”生活了一段时间,给他生了一个女儿,后来又两次嫁给西班牙人。
她的最后一个丈夫积极聚敛财富,并为了替她争取成为蒙提祖马二世的女继承人而
奔波。1550年她死时,完全是一套欧化的阔绰排场,甚至还立了遗嘱。
特居波钦的女儿莱奥娜尔(Leonor)嫁给了发现银矿的柴加特加斯(Zacatecas)。此
外她的后裔中有几个定居西班牙,还获得爵位,分别是德*米拉瓦尔(de Miravalle)
伯爵,达勃朗泰(d'Abrantes)公爵和德*里那尔(de Linares)伯爵。
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_Moctezuma
英殖民者的混倒新鲜,大溪地。达尔文有记载,张爱玲追踪过,好奇者大有人在:
We can see why it is that aborigines, who have long inhabited
islands, and who must have been long exposed to nearly uniform
conditions, should be specially affected by any change in their
habits, as seems to be the case. Civilised races can certainly
resist changes of all kinds far better than savages; and in this
respect they resemble domesticated animals, for though the latter
sometimes suffer in health (for instance European dogs in India),
yet they are rarely rendered sterile, though a few such instances have
been recorded.* The immunity of civilised races and domesticated
animals is probably due to their having been subjected to a greater
extent, and therefore having grown somewhat more accustomed, to
diversified or varying conditions, than the majority of wild
animals; and to their having formerly immigrated or been carried
from country to country, and to different families or subraces
having inter-crossed. It appears that a cross with civilised races
at once gives to an aboriginal race an immunity from the evil
consequences of changed conditions. Thus the crossed offspring from
the Tahitians and English, when settled in Pitcairn Island,
increased so rapidly that the island was soon overstocked; and in June
1856 they were removed to Norfolk Island. They then consisted of 60
married persons and 134 children, making a total of 194. Here they
likewise increased so rapidly, that although sixteen of them
returned to Pitcairn Island in 1859, they numbered in January 1868,
300 souls; the males and females being in exactly equal numbers.
What a contrast does this case present with that of the Tasmanians;
the Norfolk Islanders increased in only twelve and a half years from
194 to 300; whereas the Tasmanians decreased during fifteen years from
120 to 46, of which latter number only ten were children.*(2)
* Variation of Animals, &c., vol. ii., p. 16.
*(2) These details are taken from The Mutineers of the Bounty, by
Lady Belcher, 1870; and from Pitcairn Island, ordered to be printed by
the House of Commons, May 29, 1863. The following statements about the
Sandwich Islanders are from the Honolulu Gazette, and from Mr. Coan.
张爱玲,谈看书,谈看书后记
Pitcairn Island, Norfolk,,, to be continued...
- posted on 04/09/2010
谈到Pitcairn,又想到Mutiny on the Bounty, 昨晚又看了三十年代版,精彩!
咖啡一直有讨论:
http://www.mayacafe.com/forum/topic1sp.php3?tkey=1195308317
过后再读张爱玲的《谈看书后记》,读到近两点:
http://www.mayacafe.com/forum/topic1sp.php3?tkey=1195097785
这些达尔文都不会提,原来资料保密。再读之下,张的这篇散文虽然散乱,也是张作
中极好的。原因就象她在《谈读书》最后几句话中说的。
还是Sentimental不Sentimental的问题! - posted on 04/21/2010
巴西人类学家Darcy Ribeiro,1979年在巴黎大学接受名誉博士学位时普说:“作为
人类学家,我没能达成自己的目标--拯救巴西的印第安人。是的,仅仅是为了拯
救他们,我努力了三十年。我失败了。我曾希望把他们从暴行中救出来,这暴行已
导致许多印第安部族灭绝。在二十世纪,二百三十个部落的印第安人当中,已有八
十多个部族消失……把他们从辛酸和低落中拯救出来吧。这辛酸和低落,是由传教
士、官兵、科学家以及地主造成。其中尤其是地主最为凶残,他们千方百计剥夺印
第安人最基本的权利,生存和延续文化的权利”。
列维-斯特劳斯也作类似的感慨。可惜文中未提及生意人,橡胶、黄金、钻石,这些
老列维都还有专章提。我去亚马逊主要是采集植物,看到的多是混血Cabocles。
橡胶树的歌
The Mayan Indian call the resin obtained therefrom Cauchu,
which is pronounced cahouchou and means 'tree-that-weeps'.
-- Charles Marie de La Condamine
卡乌臼,卡乌臼
三叶橡胶在哭泣
她身上一道道伤痕
流出像乳汁一样的泪
泪汁一滴接一滴
卡乌臼,卡乌臼
滴落在风中,凝固
凝得像焦碳一样的硬
亚马逊森林,亚马逊河
白河的水与黑河的波
卡乌臼,卡乌臼
都在哭诉着一支歌:
"我来了,带来繁华梦,
我走了,黄金钻石掏成空…
印弟安兄弟难寻影踪"
卡乌臼、卡乌臼
2004/10/07
从北美,到中美,新西班牙我提到Las Casas,南美亚马逊我还要提一位人权斗士,
朗顿上校(Rondon),一位现代传奇!他十六岁入伍,当一名普通士兵,展开他的军
旅生涯。他以实证主义的理想,在巴西政府的赞助下,于1910年创立了“印第安保
护局”。这是美洲第一个有关印第安事务的组织。在他去世十四年后,1972年,巴
西官方报纸如此评论这个消失的组织:“在朗顿人道主义光芒下诞生的印第安保护
局,根本无法完成它的使命……对印第安人及其财产的罪行,应当归咎于缺乏行政
的、民事的和刑事上的法律。森林与土地的劫掠,都源于此。”
二十世纪初,亚马逊河沿岸任何一个共和国都没有赋与印第安人宪法所赋与的权利。
1910橡胶丑闻爆发,终于迫使巴西政府成立“印第安保护局”。这是第一个保护印
第安人不受饥饿或贫困之苦,不受白人盘剥,以及防止传播疾病的官方组织。
朗顿作为领导与创始人,名誉家喻户晓。1956年他九十高龄时,被擢升为巴西元帅,
几年后逝。他留给印第安保护局一句口号:“必要时可以死;但永远不要杀人。”
这充满人道精神的话,也随着他的逝世而烟消云散。
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A2ndido_Rondon
这是南美亚马逊印第安的人具体分布图,有机会我扫描更精细一点的:
&
前面提到伊莎贝拉女王的遗嘱,我这里具体摘引一下:
“愿我国王陛下、我女公主和我儿王子,保护海岛与陆地上的印第安人,勿让他们蒙
受人身或财产的损害;务必要保证,日后会公正而仁慈地对待他们。”
西班牙女王伊莎贝拉的遗嘱
to be continued...
- posted on 04/23/2010
我先把亚马逊河一带原住民旧居地图贴一贴:
长是长了点,更有点亚马逊气质!
译名对照一下:
Jivaro, 希瓦多人,Iquito,伊基托人,Tukuna,图库纳人,Ouitoto,维托托人,Omagua,
奥马瓜人,Yanomami,雅诺马米人,ARAWAK,阿拉瓦克印第安区,Mundurucu,蒙图鲁
库人,Pareci,帕雷西人,Emerillon,埃梅里隆人,CARIB,加勒比印第安人区,Nambicuara,
南比克瓦人,Bororo,波洛洛人,Chavante,沙万特人,Cayapo,卡亚波人,GE,吉印
第安人区,TUPI,图皮印第安人区。
橡胶,是亚马逊印第安人的麻醉品,也导致印第安人的终结。
亚马逊人原是把橡胶拿来抽吸以至生幻用。及至橡皮橡胶轮胎的发明,亚马逊森林
的原住民就遭遇毁灭性的打击。橡胶工人倒未必有印第人的的份,但摧毁家园,强
迫无偿的劳动。以前说过Potosi,冷水银矿,冷山上,不给食宿,最近夺去六百万
原住民的命。记得当年写过一篇El Chirango的贴子。
橡胶工人叫seringueiro......
Mad Maria
兴建马代拉-马莫雷铁路计划庞大,夺走了许多劳工和印弟安人的性命;人称它是
“疯狂的玛丽亚”。欧洲人用“每根枕木多少条命”来计算他们在非洲殖民时筑铁路的
代价。依照这个标准,这条铁路代价昂贵。
筑路时大家带着如意算盘:巴西与波利维亚边境森林的橡胶树可以赢回成本。但是
,五年后铁路完工,橡胶市场土崩瓦解,六千多名劳工白白送命。
Suarez of Bolivia
橡胶大王苏亚雷斯强占Caripuna印第安领土,小兄弟丧命。结果,为了一条苏亚雷
斯的命,他们杀了三百名卡利普那人,才算了结此事。苏亚雷斯对外宣称这些印第安
人很懒,苏豢养了600名印第安女子,任来客寻欢作乐,以此繁殖人口。等他们后代
长了,好帮工。
Putumayo Affair
http://www.bouncing-balls.com/timeline/putumayo.htm
Arana recruited a private militia of black men from Barbados, subjects of Her Britannic
Majesty. And he had the clever idea of setting up headquarters in London and
arranging for City financiers to underwrite his firm. That give it an air of
respectability. The sacrosanct militiamen were armed with Winchesters and sent into
the jungle to recruit Indians. They rounded up thirty thousand and confined them to
company-owned villages.
On 20 July 1912, The Illustrated London News ran a two page spread on "The
Putumayo Revelations"; the headline read "30,000 Lives: 4,000 Tons."
Pthotographs revealed conditions in Julia Arana's Indian camps and showed how, for
example, the overseers in the La Chorrera and El Encanto camps beat the Indians'
legs with tapir-hide whips that left disfiguring pads of scar tissue.
...Five years later a court of inquiry issued a report revealing that the rain forest had
been turned into a killing field. All but eight thousand of the fifty thousand Indians in
the region had been killed. Each ton of rubber had cost seven human lives.
To be continued... - posted on 05/27/2010
最后再谈一谈“吃人族”--雅诺马米(Yanomami),亚马逊的钻石与黄金。
最后的雅诺玛米人
雅诺马米人最明显的例子。他们人口约有16000左右,是至今未开化部族中最大的
一支。但这种状况恐怕不会持久。一切都因为黄金,那伦敦塔的罗利爵士想要见上
一面的镀金人,又死而复生。五个世纪的幻想与噩梦后,亚马逊传奇的结局,竟会
是镀金人被谋杀吧?外人发现他们生活在一座黄金与钻石的宝山上,于是那些“异乡
客”一手持镐一手拿枪,就这样闯进来了。在雅诺玛米的土地上,异乡客是土著的
一部。土著的厄运开始了,主要原因是他们孤立无援。与他们通婚的部族只有耶夸
纳人,但是这族住得很远。整个民族志学界为雅诺玛米人的命运感到不安。
雅诺玛米人能繁衍到今天,并且能有如此数量的人口,原因是否就在于他们至今不
与白人接触?他们仍然漂泊,仍陷在险境,是不是也因为他们没有接受其他文明?
二、三十年前,雅诺马米人的人口还在增加,也并未全然遗世孤立。季内瑞拉的雅
诺马米人,发展出独特的物质文明,完全没有借用白人世界的帮助。
他们有独木舟,有棉绳编织的吊订,并种植少量的香蕉和木薯。可能是受到定居的
耕作部族耶夸纳人影响。这两个部族厌倦了征战,互通有无,通婚。现在这里起了
变化。如果不是突然涌进了寻找黄金与钻石的白人,也许这个一直与外界隔绝的世
界,会继续平稳发展。
雅诺马米人的领地很大,不久前还是亚马逊最后一块净土。1949至50年间白人第一
次和雅诺马米人的部落接触,那时雅诺 马米人仍是传说中的可怕的人;雅诺马米人
眼中的白人,则是恐怕的吃人精。
Curiously, history repeated itself in the Space Age as hordes of hungry, penniless
fortune-seekers trudged toward Sierra Parima to sacle a hitherto undisturbed
mountain in search of gold. In May 1988 the London-based tribal defense movement
Survival International sounded the alarm: "Today the Yanomami Indians are facing
the most serious threat to their survival ever. Twenty thousand miners have overrun
their territory in the last month alone."
Garimpeiros
The latest gold rush, which began in 1987, brought prospectors, garimpeiros - a
pickax in one hand and a Winchester in the other - into the jungle to seek their
fortunes. An estimated forty thousand people flooded Yanomami territory in Brazil
alone, whith estimates of the jackpot reaching $1 billion a year.
Chances are that the Yanomami would have gone on living in another world, as they
always had, if Brazilian prospectors hadn't stumbled upon mammoth gold and diamond
deposits on the Amazon slop of Sierra Parima. Thus, El Dorado was reborn at the very
spot where the famous adventurer and inmate of the Tower of London, Sir Walter
Raleigh, thought he would find it four hundred years ago. Atarting in 1987, this gold
rush brought forty thousand people - and their culture and diseases - into Yanomami
lands.
The implications of such an influx of people have been vast. The delicate balance
between people and nature has been upset, and the Yanomami are paying the price.
Diseases brought by miners - malaria, tuberculosis, venereal disease - have killed at
least fifteen hundred Brazilian Yanomami. In 1990 Time magazine quoted one
Yanomami amn as saying, " They gave us rice and wheat, but then we got sick .
They pretended to be our friends, but they are killing us."
Yanomami
Even if the Yanomami and other Indian tribes survive the threats to their health and
to their culture, the impact of the white invasion is indelible. Change is inevitable; the
Yanomami will never be the same. "The question is," says Venezuelan anthropologist
Robert Lizaraldi, "whether it will be on their terms or someone else's."
PROBABILY THE END
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