林奈 Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus) (1707 - 1778)
我一直在着磨怎么起始这条线。按传统说法总是达尔文与华莱士宣读论文,伦敦林
奈会再引出林奈,这是本末倒置了。或者说那句话:上帝创造世界,任林奈命名。
也是哗众取宠的修辞--不喜欢对偶句。又说什么花王子,植物王,那是孩童版的
书中。我买了一本大林奈,同时也买了一本少儿版。英美人写书总体上还是很实在,
好事坏事都写,不过多褒贬,名词与形容词之间,以名词为多。我在Uppsala林奈
旧居店中买了一本瑞典人写的林奈小册子,里头“亚当再生”、“植物学统帅”、
“北欧的普林尼”。北欧的普林尼这个称呼不错,古罗马有两个普林尼有名,这里
指的是老普林尼,小的要文史一些,以书信闻名。一般传记从他的生平写起,但那
长篇巨作,失去了动感,不太符合网上贴子的趣味。想来想去,忽见案头上一面拉
普兰买来的Sami人的鹿皮鼓,这个很珍贵!林奈到拉普兰一行很有点植物探险家的
风度,经费不足,苦楚不已!但那是青春大学期,吃多少苦都是值得的。虽然,他
一入Uppsala大学不久就能够生活上自立。
提到这面拉普兰的鼓,买的时候花费不少心思。一个人出行,身边带的东西愈少愈
好,一般来说不买礼品。这回出行,更是飞机托运都免,省一些时间,关健是纽约
回机,托运行李往往要等个把小时,没那个耐性。但这一面鼓是要买的,我货比三
家,有全真的椭圆面椭球体,尺寸也如意。一问价钱,一万四千多瑞典克郎,合美
金两千多刀,砍不动。问讯平底的,有巨大号,一千多克郎,中号得五六百,小号
的有,但找不到货了。我合计着买一面中号的鼓,六百多克郎没什么,只是尺寸略
显大了一些,不好装带。货比三家,问了另一家同样的价钱更贵,回这一家来付钱,
无意发现窗口展示一面小鼓,至少还有一货。虽然,一般店里陈列不让卖,我与店
员商量,她没有这观念。没问题,我终于抱着一面小鼓,背着行襄到了回程斯德哥
尔摩的火车站,把玩不已。
这鼓中有多少学问,就鼓面的图绘中就有许多学问,我一直没找时间理清。鼓是鹿
皮面,鼓槌是鹿角骨,有一根皮带附在鼓面上,想也是鹿皮带。鼓点清脆,鼓槌捏
紧了还敲不出这个味,松了敲不脆,半松半紧最好。这鼓让我想到阿拉斯加的皮鼓,
只有一面海豹皮,手击的声音一样清脆。说是magic drum, shaman drum更有说
Witch drum。
好的鼓,背面是这样的把式:
This is the back of a northern sami drum. It is made out of a single piece of
birchwood with decorations of reindeerhorn. Photo: Andreas Ström
我上回北极花Twinflower一线上一张林奈画像,右手执他自我命名的花,左手边
总是面拉普兰的鼓。中间拖拉着一大堆东西,我也点理不清。他这一身都是拉普兰
的Sami人装束,颇为自豪。林奈个子小小的,比拿破仑不高,比贝多芬不矮。但
极上相,据说有史以来的科学家中,他是上相最多。就单此站相便有四幅,略有异
,有的后有书卷,有的鼓面不全,在荷兰,肖像画家Martin Hoffmann画的。
此外,在瑞币一百克郎,现今的王宫墙饰的高上,都有他的形像。“为了美丽歌谣
的神奇鼓面”--我在他旧居的卧室橱窗中看到画上那面旧鼓有陈列。边上是他拉
普兰一行的笔记本,不很久以前才被发现。
to be continued...
- posted on 10/15/2010
New scenes his raptur'd sight surveys
Amid Lapponia's peaceful soil;
And while with ardent zeal he strays
Fair science crowns his pleasing toil.
前面以拉普兰鼓作引子。鼓敲过了,还得献上一朵花,什么花呢?还得是他钟爱的
北极花(Linnea borealis):
Linnaea borealis - Twinflower
The small, red and white flower of Lapland was to become Linnaeus's favourite.
Linnaeus compared it to himself, with uncharacteristic modesty, as lowly and
insignificant.
Through many a forest dark and drear,
O'er many a desert's trackless side,
With fearless foot he ranges round
With Heaven and Nature for his guide.
林奈去拉普兰,却钟意这么丁点一棵藤蔓状小花,并以此自比。本来,人的生命都
很卑微,而极地的植物,尤其珍稀!我也很喜欢极地植物,比如石南,勿忘我,蓍
草等,都那么样坚韧,面朝阳光时,依旧带笑,对生命与阳光充满感激。
1707年林奈生于瑞典南方斯马兰(Småland)省的Råshult, 一个典型牧师家庭,他
是长子,还有三个妹妹和一个弟弟。弟弟萨缪继承父业,作了stenbrohult教会的
管事。萨缪写过有关蜜蜂养殖的书,那是18世纪实用自然科学感兴趣的一个领域。
作为牧师的孩子,林奈兄弟注定要上几年大学就是理所当然的事。
林奈在家乡附近的Växjö上了高中,学业不怎么样。他的物理老师,一名叫Johan
Rothman的医生,发现他的天分,对他表现出的对看似无用的植物常识方面的兴趣
予以鼓励,向担忧他学业的父母亲解释说他们的长子不应学神学,而应致力于医学
深造。就这样,林奈开始了医学。我们或许不应用现代眼光来看林奈父母的忧虑。
在那个时代,学医的极难找到工作,而学神学的则可保障有工作。林奈的家长肯定
听到过有关医学违反上帝的流言,不就是做医生的在上个世纪把邪恶的迪卡尔思想
带到这里的大学么?
上完高中林奈就踏上了Lund大学的路。Lund(斯堪的那纳亚的伦敦)是瑞典最古老
的大学之一,地处瑞典南端,有丹麦文化影响,与荷兰与欧洲大陆也近,算得上是
门户。当时国家刚从战争的阴影中走出来,人民生活开始渐渐趋向稳定。林奈能为
自己张罗来上大学的资助不仅靠他难得的聪颖,更因为他的魅力和大胆打动了对方
。这次,医学教授Kilian Stobaeus接纳了林奈,尽管教授的管家反对,林奈经常
半夜看书会酿成失火的危险而担惊受怕。当时医生不太看得上林奈的读写能力,林
奈夜半读书多是转手他的图书,直到有一天……
Statue of Linnaeus as a University student in Lund.
to be continued...
- posted on 10/18/2010
Kilian Stobaeus医生有相当丰厚的藏书,可惜图书室门紧锁。医生的秘书,一位德
国大学生,手中有钥匙。他与林奈是好朋友。秘书答应帮他挪书,条件是林奈帮他
生理学功课。林奈夜夜烛读,烛光惹得医生的老妈不好睡,便报告医生。医生半夜
两点闯到林奈的屋内,看到他案前堆满古籍,都来自他的藏书,他要求一个解释。
林奈解释后被强令睡下,他们第二天早晨再谈。第二天,比林奈预想的好:医生发
现他对植物学强烈的兴趣,把图书馆向他开放,并提供免费住宿与餐食。
这样他们的关系彻底改善,医生发现这个相貌平平的学生,值得他多方载培。
He gave him not only the run of his books but also free board at his own table
and free admission to his lectures. He took him with him on his rounds. Soon
he even went so far as to hint that, since he had no children of his own, he
might perhaps make Linnaeus his heir. Linnaeus was deeply grateful to Stobaeus
'to whom [he wrote later] I am indebted, so long as I live, for the love he bore
me, and that he loved me, not as a pupil, but as if I were a son'.
这种师生情谊与中国古代有些相类。周末读了一本瑞典史,发现瑞典人虽Viking,骨
子里与中国人有些相通,有些中庸。林奈在Lund还有几次植物远足,读的古籍多也
是拉丁的。
1728年林奈投身到更大,更古老大学,创建于1477年的Uppsala。在那里他遇见两
位已到退休之年的老教授Olof Rubeck the younger和Lars Roberg。Olof Rubeck
的父亲Olof Rubeck the elder曾转医学到考古,着有《大西洋国》,是瑞典复兴的
文化功臣。
两位教授的职位让林奈颇为动心,他期待有一天能在教授的位置上施展他的才华。他
在乌普萨拉大学前后呆了七年,中途因1732年去北方拉普兰省和1734年去达拉那省
的旅行中断。林奈多数时间都在自学,也有幸归依到小吕倍克门下,他寄宿小吕倍克
家里一直到女主人不知为何原因将他扫地出门。林奈也得到Roberg教授的信任,罗伯
格是位不寻常的学者,一位在哲学意义上玩世不恭的智者,人们常说他行为古怪,衣
着不整,但他有一个庞大的图书馆。林奈对他无比尊重。
从林奈的笔记中可以看到,早期医学学习可以说是一种古老的民间迷信与现代机械
论的奇特组合,此可从林奈回家为他妹妹治病的例子看出:为了给他妹妹治发烧,
林奈竟然将她包裹进一头新屠宰的羊身体里!林奈在课堂上给学生们讲,如把浇酒
浇在小狗身上,这样小狗会永远保持娇小体态;如果一个白人女人同一个黑人男人
生下一个男孩的话,男孩的阳具会是黑色的。最著名的例子还是林奈顽固地相信燕
子在冬天不是飞到南方,而是在湖底过冬,就象燕子长着鱼一样的鳞和鳃。(民间
观察燕子略水,捉虫)类似这样的例子让人感到难为。
同时,林奈对新机械论生理学的真理性报着坚定信念,尤坚信其核心所说“人是机
械”(Homo machina est)名言,正如罗伯格简单归纳:“心脏是水泵,肺是风
箱,胃是一只装杂烩的碗。”林奈喜欢另一句名言:“人是动物”(Homo est animal)
一起,林奈对人有着这样的认识是充满大胆和现代意识的。一个基本出发点是:
“大自然的简单体系”,这种新物理学的理论是经过牛顿证实,那就是在对自然的
物种进行深层分析后发现,所有的物种都遵循着几个明智的定律,而不是一堆杂乱
无章的特例。大自然因此变得容易理解,林奈等人迫不及待地以此推理出有关自然
王国之间的和自然同文化之间的类似结论。这样的结论尽管下得仓促,但仍是情有
可原。
林奈首感兴趣的是自然史,尤其是植物学。他无疑是个天才植物学家,但正如所有
伟大的科学艺术家一样,只有通过艰苦努力才能达到。林奈在Uppsala附近地区经
常郊游,吕倍克之父早在十七世纪五十年代创立的学院花园成了他的讲堂,这样的
努力使他赢得了知识,各种关系和名声。林奈的雇主和经济负担人小吕倍克(这里
澄名一下瑞典人名的奇特,吕倍克的儿子,往往叫吕倍克松--吕倍克之子)为他
展示了其中一本他在1690年代期间所画的著名的关于鸟的书。这本书是通过他
前往瑞典北方拉普兰地区的一次旅行搜集的资料完成的--那也是瑞典历史上第一
次科学考察。在Uppsala,还有一个人叫Petrus Artedi,也是学医生,他成为林奈
谈论对象和自然历史学术上的知己。他俩针对改革科学界一起做了许多计划,提出
要注重秩序,全面看待问题。在林奈的学生住房里他搜集了越来越多标本、书籍和
他自己的手稿。下面是林奈手稿的摘译:
“我的读者,你请看看他的博物馆--是公开对来访者开放的--那里充满了让人
愉快和敬仰的东西,你真地会喜欢那地方。天花板被他用鸟皮贴过,一面墙上挂着
拉普兰人的民族服装和其他希罕玩意儿,另一面墙上是大宗的植物和海洋生物。另
外两面墙旁堆满了自然科学和医生的书,采矿石的工具和一排排列整齐的石头。屋
子的一角长着高大的树枝,他在那里为近三十种鸟类作了鸟巢。在窗户上放着巨大
的花盆,装满着泥土,种种奇花异草在那里茁壮成长。”
林奈为博士答辩作准备,但要取得医生博士称号他必须到国外留学。自17世纪下半
叶瑞典人多愿意到荷兰完成学业,因此那里也对瑞典的学术届发展有着重要影响。
林奈的博士学位一周内就拿到了,但他在荷兰欧洲等地游学了三年。
经年后,为了对Olof Rubeck表感激,林奈亲命名了一种寒冬菊类,自新大陆,能
开放到年底。英文叫Cornflower,中文叫日光菊:
Rudbeckia L.
to be continued...
- posted on 10/20/2010
Uppsala这么快就了结,确实是受读一本旅游小册子的影响,连比儿童版的传记都
省略。我读儿童版传记,发现很多事情一节略,就产生误会,有些简直是搪塞而已,
但正规传记长篇累牍,不容易一下吃透。这一线我写得吃力,基本上是这个问题。
最近太分心,本来把这大半年都奉献给自然,但还是偷读了不少无关的书籍,这样
自然就写不纯粹,林奈也把握不住了。看来传记还得精读几遍。
Uppsala大学Rubeck一节,还得仔细,在Uppsala大学,林奈还遇到一位贵人相助
,发明摄氏温度刻度Celsius的伯父,Olof Celsius(1670-1756). 这位瑞典科学界
的大员,说身份,还是神学院长,业余的植物学家。这几位贵人都得花些笔墨,先
把林奈给小Rudbeck献花名的陈辞引一下,英文的好得多:
Linnaeus showed his gratitude to Rudbeck by naming an American plant
in his honour. 'So long as the earth shall survive,' he wrote to him on 29
July 1931 'as each spring shall see it covered with flowers, the Rudbeckia
will preserve your glorious name.' To lend one's name to a plant was a
sure way to live on in the memory of mankind: who, he asked, would
remember Gentius, King of Illyria, were it not for the gentian? '
He had carefully considered what plant would be suitable:
I have chosen a noble plant in order to recall your merits and the services
you have rendered, a tall one to give an idea of your stature; and I wanted
it to be one which branched and which flowered and fruited freely, to show
that you cultivated not only the sciences but also the humanities. Its rayed
flowers will bear witness that you shone among savants like the Sun among
the stars; its perennial roots will remind us that each year sees you live again
through new works. Pride of our gardens, the Rudbeckia will be cultivated
throughout Europe and in distant lands where your revered name must long
have been known. Accept this plant, not for what it is but for what it will
be come when it bears your name.
Rudbeckia有一个通俗种,黑睛眼苏珊,Black-eyed Susan。
瑞典A.摄尔修斯创立以水的冰点为100度、汽点为0度的温标。1745年,瑞典C.von林
奈将两个固定点颠倒,即成为摄氏温标。再把林奈给摄尔修斯献名花附录一下:
Celsia cretica, Cretan Mullein, 毛蕊花, 玄参科
Linnaeus named Celsia cretica in honour of his early benefactor, Olof Celsius.
东北美常见的毛蕊花是Moth Mullein,空旷的山梁野谷上,高大一串黄花束,毛绒绒
的叶,叶有点油菜的风味。Celsia属多已纳入Verbascum,Celsia更多在种名中出现。
林奈与摄尔修斯结识是在植物园中:
Linnaeus was sitting one day in the neglected Botanic Garden when an elderly
clergyman came up to him and asked him what he was looking at, whether he
knew about plants and had studied botany, where he came from, and how long
he had been at Uppsala. He asked the names of a number of plants, which
Linnaeus gave according to Tournefort's system. Finally he asked him how
many plants he had collected and pressed. When Linnaeus told him that he
had more than six hundred native wild flowers, he invited the young man to
come back with him to his house...
林奈这才知道跟他说话的是老摄尔修斯,有一段时间摄氏在斯德哥尔摩开会,故而在
校园一直未能遇。林奈回去取自己收集的植物标本,老摄尔修斯惊叹不已。当得知林奈
穷困了倒,他象Lund的Stobaeus一样提供林奈住宿,并共桌两餐饭。林奈一次遇到
贵人相助!
老摄尔修斯与小吕倍克对林奈拉普兰的行程很引导,称得上林奈的献名!
to be continued...
- posted on 10/21/2010
林奈总写不流畅,还有一个原因是人名与地名名称不容易。比如我昨天就把两个摄
尔修斯弄混,多亏有一贴可思。另外两个吕倍克,林奈家祖袭的名。打自冰岛旅行
后,才了解到北欧没有别地方的家族姓,这回到瑞典更是。我随便添一贴,就谈谈
名称吧。
中国人的名称,倒很符合植物名称的趣味,先姓后名。可是,中国植物通俗名还是一
样反过,红松,花旗参,英文的通俗植物名也差不多,Red Maple, Black Walnut。
但拉丁一系的语言倒是反过来,比如红花Flora Rojo,绿叶hoja verde这就有点中
文先姓后名的架式。我审查一下拉丁的人名,比如卡图鲁斯:Gaius Valerius Catullus;
西赛罗:Marcus Tullius Cicero;凯撒:Gaius Julius Caesar都比较规范化。但
西班牙语的名称:José Martí全名:José Julián Martí Pérez;洛尔卡:Federico
del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús García Lorca;这里有del又有de,够描述。记
得当年写赤道国,还有名字带y(and)的:Jorge Juan y Santacilia(1713-1773)
当然洛尔伽一般简称Federico García Lorca,但他的全名可见拉丁通俗文化后期
一些学术植物名称的趣味。
瑞典有句古话:受宠的孩子儿名字多。
在林奈的时代,大多数瑞典人是没有姓的。林奈的祖父的名字,按斯堪的纳维亚传
统,叫做英格玛·彭茨森(Ingemar Bengtsson),“彭茨森”的意思就是彭特(Bengt)
的儿子。林奈的父亲则叫尼尔斯·英格玛森(Nils Ingemarsson),“英格玛森”的意思
是英格玛的儿子。只有在为了登记的时候,比如说在大学入学时,他们才需要一个
姓。当时的学术界以拉丁语为通用语言,所以林奈的父亲在进入隆德大学时,他给
自己创造了一个拉丁语的姓:Linnaeus。这个姓来自椴树的古瑞典语linn(在现代
瑞典语中是lind),之所以用椴树为姓,是因为在他们家族的所有地上有一棵被尊为
“看护神树”的巨大的心叶椴,他们家族的所有地也因而得名Linnagård。尼尔斯·英格
玛森为儿子起名为卡尔(Carl),所以这个孩子的瑞典语姓名应该是Carl Linnaeus。
林奈在私立学校登记为隆德大学的学生时,他用的注册姓名是Carolus Linnaeus。
这个姓名也是他在出版拉丁语著作时使用的名字。1761年他被授予贵族头衔后,他
开始使用Carl von Linné这个姓名,其中“Linné”是Linnaeus的简写形式,而“von”
加在姓名中用来显示他的贵族身份。
如果要在引用文献时使用林奈的名字,最好写作Carl Linnaeus, Carolus Linnaeus
或只写作Linnaeus。写成Carl von Linné并不合适,特别是在引用他出版于1762年
以前的著作时。在《植物种志》第二版(1762)的标题页上,作者的姓名仍然用的是
Carolus Linnaeus(更准确地说,用的是其属格形式Caroli Linnaei),但在之后的
著作中,他的姓名一直都印作Carolus a Linne或Carl von Linné。Stafleu在他的所
有著作中都用Carl Linnaeus作为林奈的姓名。在瑞典他贵族化姓名Carl von Linné
则广为人知,欧洲大陆也一样流行。
林奈名字的形容词形式通常用Linnaean,但是著名的伦敦林奈学会的英文写法却是
Linnean Society of London,他们出版的一本刊物也叫The Linnean,颁发的奖
则叫Linnean Medal(林奈学会奖),对于植物学家们来说,林奈干脆就是一个单
纯的字母L,带在动/植物名称后。
前面提的吕倍克,瑞典学界按拉丁传统,自然有家族名。老吕倍克Olof Rudbeck the
elder(September 13, 1630 Västerås – December 12, 1702),写《大西洋国》
的,瑞典复兴功臣,开创Uppsala植物园。与林奈忘年同在并提供住宿兼家教且受赠
Rudbeckia花名的是小吕倍克Olof Rudbeck the younger(1660-1740). 摄尔修斯
Olof Celsius (the elder) (July 19, 1670 – June 24, 1756),发明摄氏温度刻度
且得到林奈更正的是他侄儿Anders Celsius (1701 – 1744),他儿子与林奈也很交
谊。 都曾与林奈同在,但受赠克里特岛毛蕊花Celsia cretica赠名的是老摄尔修斯。
瑞典人好用Olof作名,包括Olof Palme,瑞典历史上有一位名君王Olof Skötkonung
(980-1022).
to be continued...
- posted on 10/28/2010
林奈这一线要荒疏,这就对不起瑞典一行。上一贴说的几位贵人,Lars Roberg,
Olof Rudbeck the younger, Olof Celsius (the elder)。林奈拉普兰一行还得从
后两位说起。
小吕倍克1695年曾经拉普兰一行,当然是科学探险。回来后经年在一行带回来的标
本材料上(再说明一下,科学探险都离不开原住民的人类学调查,对一切充满好奇,
林奈也是!)劳作,可惜一场大火,Uppsala著名的一场全城大火,把标本材料以及
未完手稿全都化为灰烬,of twelve projected volumes, only two perfect copies
of the first and several of the second survival. 那一场大火发生于1702年,
此后,他发现自己心力再不能承担自然史了,改行语言,并且在语言学上取得不小
的成就。他的Thesaurus(Lexicon)综汇欧亚多种语音字汇,成就不低于他老爸的
《大西洋国》。
老摄尔修斯虽身居神学,但也亲身植物学研究。自与林奈相识后,他手头有两本书
需要助手,Hierobotanicon--圣经植物考古;另外是Uppsala行省Uppland的植
物志。这两桩大事都要年轻人帮忙,自从偶尔认识青年林奈后,两人曾多次Uppland
植物旅行。他们曾两次探访一种叫Sceptrum carolinum的植物,头一回六月,花
未开。及秋天第二回才看到,这种植物先是小吕倍克命名,Sceptrum carolinum的
意思是“Karl的权杖”,是纪念卡尔十二世的,卡尔刚打败俄国,旋即命丧在挪威!林
奈以后将之命名为Pedicularis,英文Lousewort,没有小吕倍克给的名称那么英勇
。这种植物咖啡里Lucy贴过,我也鉴定过:
Pedicularis Sceptrum carolinum
老摄尔修斯象Stobaeus给青年林奈提供住宿,一日两顿,并管理图书。以后,是他
将林奈推荐给小吕倍克家食宿,并为林奈申请Royal Scholarship,二等,以后转头
等。小吕倍克让他在Uppsala大学搞植物学讲座,他的讲座规模不小,林奈旋即从穷
学生变成讲师,虽然经济还不稳定。再以后,也是在这两位贵人鼓励,并且从皇家科
学会申请资助,林奈才得以展开拉普兰一行。这时候,林奈脑子里的植物名称与花性
征分类的思想早已成熟。林奈归家探亲一次,母亲与妹妹都病得不浅,父亲对一行开
绿灯。
Friday 12 May 1732, at 11 o'clock, 25 years old, 林奈踏上拉普兰行程:
Småland gave me birth
Sweden have I travelled through
Seen 450 ells deep into the bowels of the earth
Climbed six miles up into the skies
Summer and Winter seen in one day and on the same day lived in
Clouds have I passed through
The World's End have I visited
Seen the Sun's overnight refuge
In one year travelled more than 6000miles by land.
O ENS Entium miserere mei!
(O Being of Beings, have pity on me!)
这里还有一位Uppsala大学的先行者,Johannes Schefferus的拉普兰记叙,据说
林奈参阅过:
Title page of Scheffer's Lapponia, 1673
to be continued... - posted on 11/08/2010
才读完一本有关植物命名史的书,也可以说是植物系统化,或西方植物学史。从古
希腊Theophrastus讲起,Theophrastus是亚里斯多德的承继,他们共学于柏拉
图Academy。柏拉图去后亚里斯多德自创Lyceum(逍遥学派),亚里斯多德后Theo
phrastus,一直延续到纪元后,有说被罗马帝国废止,又说第二次复兴后被基督教
关闭,那就是很后来的事了。反正中间有一段风光早被亚历山大的Museum夺去。
说亚里斯多德与柏拉图对立,一个指天,一个指地。指地好,关心自然世界与人类,
话说亚历山大远征,带回来世界各地的动植物标本。亚历斯多德潜心动物,Theo-
phrastus专攻植物。当然Theophrastus在别的领域也有许多研究,政治语言修辞
学,但他给后人留下的最重要的成果还是植物学研究。一般人把他当西方植物学研
究的第一人。
这本书叫THE NAMING OF NAMES,英国人ANNA PAVORD著。这本书在我手头
有些日子了,除了偶尔翻翻(里面插图很美),系统详细地读这还是头一遍,收获丰
富。英国人写书把能收集的标本档案,文字涉及的地域都走遍了,这种条件一般人
怎么讲得起?
ANNA是把TheoPhrastus供作偶像的,从古希腊一直讲到前林奈。她把老普林尼当
抄袭者,当然包括十六世纪英国的Gerard。很有性格,但也得承认,她本人也一样是
编辑者。再说抄袭也不是坏事,没有老普林尼就没有古罗马的写实传统,没有Gerard
的Herball和英国从瑞典偷买来的一大堆林奈遗物,也不会有英国发达的植物学!
此书的植物学人谱值得一叙,大版四百多页的书,我只从略于此:Theophrastus
, Pedanios Dioscorides, Pliny the elder, Galen of Pergamum, Serapion
the younger, Avicenna(Ibn Sīnā), Adelard of Bath, Matthaeus Platearius,
Albertus Magnus, Teodoro Gaza, Nicolò Leoniceno, Ermolao Barbaro,
Conrad von Megenberg, Euricius Cordus, Otto Brunfels, Luca Ghini,
Pier Andrea Mattioli, Leonhart Fuchs, Guillaume Rondelet, William Turner,
Valerius Cordus, Pierre Belon, Rembert Dodoens, Carolus Clusius, Pierre
Pena, Lobelius(Matthias de l'Obel) , John Gerard, Hernando de Soto,
Felix Platter, Ulysse Aldrovandi, Jean Nicot, Andrea Cesalpino, Nicolás
Monardes(tr.Frampton), William Camden, Richard Hakluyt, Fabio Colonna,
Jean Bauhin, John Ray, Thomas Johnson, John Parkinson, Jacob Bobart,
Hugh Platt, Robert Morison, Nehemiah Grew, Joseph Pitton de Tournefort,
Carl Linnaeus.
提这么多名字,一般人以为或许乏味。但这些名字或多或少都介入植物拉丁名称内,
有些是科名,更多是属名。虽然这里有德法西意萄荷拉丁以及英语等各种名字,但
植物学拉丁传统就是讲这个承继。乍看会显难读些,但了解了绝对开拓一个全新视
野,不用说每个人身后都有一个时代,一生的传奇!
Theophrastus,
1644 edition of the Enquiry into Plants(Historia Plantarum)
to be continued...
- Re: 林奈 - Carl von Linné, Carolus Linnaeusposted on 11/09/2010
XW, 写得很认真。就那些植物名,俺都有点没耐心,幸亏我不学生物。
这个林奈是不是给植物分科的,界门纲目科属种。。。 - posted on 11/10/2010
xw wrote:
林奈这一线要荒疏,这就对不起瑞典一行。
Xw迷植物,爱屋及鸟,也恋林奈。我虽是植物盲,但我爱大自然。仅大自然的一草一木,生生息息,奥秘无穷。
人们信神拜佛求上帝,我信自然,一种beyond人类的力量. 真的,当人们问我,信仰什麽,我就这么回答。
美国发明家托马斯爱迪生Thomas Edison在一百年前就说“大自然是我们所知道的。宗教的上帝是我们所不知道的。自然既不和善,也不仁慈或挚爱。如果上帝造就了我 ━ 具备传说中的三种素质,慈悲,善良和爱。上帝 然后又造就了鱼让我抓来吃。那他对鱼的怜悯,仁慈和挚爱又在哪里?不,自然造就了我们 ,自然,而不是宗教里的神,造就了这一切".
想想梭罗也好,狄金森也好,他们走进自然,亲近自然,摆脱世俗,实际上是要勇气的,那种不为世人理解的勇气。他们和大自然对晤,才使生命走向诗化,固守了自己的尊严,。"诗化的尊严是动态的天真,自由的率性,一切事物都会充满好奇,处处洋溢着幻想,看似一种无邪, 看似浑不设防, 却又完全无法侵犯.",是自然给了他们创造的灵感和源泉,丰富了他们的人生和作品。不是么?
林奈也珍爱大自然, 也了不得。我想他在我们这个时代还能被视为英雄的原因:是他珍惜自然界的多样性是为了自然界本身,而不只是为了它在神学上能够给人什么样的启迪。在内心深处,他渴望尽可能拥抱大自然的点点滴滴。他相信人类应该发现、命名、计算、了解并欣赏地球上的每一种生物。他为此献出了毕生的精力。
Xw贴的林奈那张肖像画,很有个性,两眼特有神,身上鼓鼓囊囊,好几个皮囊袋,一定是放植物标本的,那个皮鼓很有趣,我一直疑惑,它是派什麽用的呢?难道在采集标本时击鼓赶动物?
Xw亲临瑞典,寻根林奈。一路艰难,字也写的难,和自然亲近哪有不难的呢!
- posted on 11/10/2010
回两位,林奈确实是界定界门纲目科属种的,并亲身鉴别命名近六千种植物,使用
他的花蕊鉴别,二分法命名。有时我以为启蒙主义时代,林奈是个大角色!
秋子总是很抒情,写得贴子有点山楂味,让人难堪。林奈身上那些家伙,除了软皮
靴最管用外,别的多是装饰的吧?当然,早先人们采植物都有讲究,各式有各式的
讲究。。林奈那鼓有巫力,估计能镇些邪吧:)。
咖啡里医生不少,林奈也是位医生,他治病很诗意的,故而一下治到皇后去。再说
早先植物大家都还身兼医生,或者画家什么的。
昨晚才订了两本Theophrastus,写林奈不急,得多读一点书才行。
- posted on 11/10/2010
去瑞典一行也很随意,旅馆都没订,只订了斯德哥尔摩来回拉普兰的夜班车。刚下
飞机乘快铁,真不需要那么快,快得连路边的树都看不清。北国多是桦树,杨树,
气温倒不低,还真是托北大西洋暖流的福。这样我身上背的冬衣怕是多余,都是给
拉普兰预备的。去拉普兰倒是一直有意,头一回听说拉普兰是朗费罗那首诗,
'And a verse of a Lapland song
Is haunting my memory still:
A boy's will is the wind's will,
And the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts.'
美国诗人朗费罗一直是当年中国人蛮亲近的。听说朗费罗这名字还是因为德沃夏克
的自新大陆,有些名词确实让人留意,一闻便记住了。比如拉普兰,朗费罗,还有
上面这首如风的拉普兰旧事。
十年前,纽约自然史博物馆有拉普兰文化展,我赶了个尾,头一回知道Saami,就
象爱斯基摩人自称Inuit,都不一样的。当时拿了不少小册子,对文化自然没能渗
透。以后学植物,去了不少北方极地,阿拉斯加,纽芬兰拉布拉多,冰岛,拉普兰
是植物名称中常见的前缀(植物拉丁为后缀),还有一个Amur,说穿了就是漠河。中
国东北我一直没有涉足过,漠河是青冈的老家,我逮空肯定要去,还要去通古斯,
楚科奇,古鲜卑大地。
许多人把俄国的西伯利亚指那一带,那就太草率了。俄国西伯利亚自彼得堡莫斯科
以西的中亚腹地就算起,哪里能概括那样一大块地或。况且,鲜卑文化与中国历史
紧密关联,不能只以西伯利亚代称。不然,原住民不同意,中国古籍也不算数了。
说到彼得堡,这回在斯得哥尔摩,如果坐渡轮的话,不小心就到了。那是北欧的又
一个地中海,叫波罗的海,穿丹麦一带的地狭与北海相连。那是另一个孕育文明的
胚胎,有丰富的北欧神话与语言体系为证,目前我们说的英文就与之有深厚渊源,
中古英语更是,只除了凯尔特。
说英国王室是承继北欧血统最纯的一脉,一直延续至今!
冰岛旅行后,整理冰岛的植物,读了林奈传记。以前读过一本少儿版,知道林奈与
拉普兰的渊源,这回更亲切。一并背上了林奈大传,比冬衣不轻。快铁到斯德哥尔
摩,旅馆人满为患,说是有什么庆典,国际活动还是会议之类,瑞典有许多国际会
议,就象中国的黄山庐山观光会。反正就连Hostel都找不到一只空床位,只好买去
Uppsala的火车,四十分钟即到了。Uppsala火车站停满自行车,跟当年中国很相
似。这里比首都冷,风吹落叶,空荡荡的街,无人。我查旅游书找到一家就在林奈
旧居博物馆边上的旅馆,First Hotel Linné, 单人间1049skr,价格还合理。
旅馆前一条小河,秋叶正红,最红的还是苹果树上的果实,半是落地。旅馆餐厅有
后门入林奈花园,这样一到Uppsala就可以亲临林奈的花园,虽然天色将昏,只我
一人,也足够清静。花园里就没有街道上那么冷风袭衣感。花园的花还盛,我留意
到一棵巨大的椴树,Linden,心形的叶,这是林奈的树,林奈家的Linné,采了三
片夹在书本中。秋水仙开得正是季节,还有我喜爱的蓼。
.
园子较开宽的一头,有植物钟花圃,已凋零。前面有个莲池,有好事者放了一尊盘
坐青铜像,我乍以为是佛陀,细细观摩,有北欧人面容,估且以为是林奈:
冥思中的林奈!后头有一尊维纳斯,这是第二天早晨阳光中的:
林奈,坐怀不乱……这是我的理解,也许根本不对。
to be continued...
- Re: 林奈 - Carl von Linné, Carolus Linnaeusposted on 11/10/2010
xw wrote:
秋子总是很抒情,写得贴子有点山楂味,让人难堪。林奈身上那些家伙,除了软皮
靴最管用外,别的多是装饰的吧?当然,早先人们采植物都有讲究,各式有各式的
讲究。。林奈那鼓有巫力,估计能镇些邪吧:)。
我写得可是句句发自肺腑的正经话啊。是不是这两天山楂树谈多了,谈出山楂味来了。 - posted on 11/14/2010
Words cannot express the joy that the sun brings to all living things. Now
the blackcock and the capercailzie begin to frolic, the fish to sport. Every
animal feels the sexual urge. Yes, Love comes even to the plants. Males
and females, even the hermaphrodites, hold their nuptials (which is the subject
that I now propose to discuss), showing by their sexual organs which are
males, which females, which hermaphrodites...
你果然有一对
丰满的乳房
珍珠项链
戴在脖子上。
一位海雾的王子
为你将明镜高悬
尽管你很遥远
我依然看见
你将彩虹的手
拉向你女性的器官
并冷静地料理
天空的软垫。
我和文艺复兴一起
用放大镜将你观看。
Venus, Tres estampos del cielo, Lorca
把林奈与维纳斯联系在一起,我想稍知希腊罗马神话的人都明白其渊源。西方艺术
讲究象征,无论希腊神话还是北欧传奇,或者旧约的传说,都成了象征的根源。圣
经这里离得远些,毕竟林奈已远离父传的神职,但林奈的工作又象个小神职,与其
左右的牛顿巴赫康德及以后的达尔文相似。总还是创世纪,创造一个人间秩序或说
体系。
也只是在林奈前不久,西方植物界才对植物的性进行广泛的研究。前面列的Joseph
Pitton de Tournefort的分类体系就是凭依花瓣,这种方式得到一定的传播,林奈
早先,即使从中学起就凭这种体系辨识。但这只是尝试的最后一阶梯,不久林奈就
有新的发展,或者说植物界对植物性与性器官的研究使然,林奈水到渠成:
The actual petals of a flower contribute nothing to generation,,, serving
only as the bridal bed which the great Creator has so gloriously prepared,
adorned with such precious bedcurtains, and perfumed with so many sweet
scents, in order that the bridegroom and bride may therein celebrate their
nuptials with the greater solemnity. When the bed has thus been made
ready, then is the time for the bridgegroom to embrace his beloved bride
and surrender himself to her...
Praeludia Sponsaliarum Plantarum -- Carl Linnaeus
这是林奈的一篇不长的论文中对植物性机能的发现中的惊喜。象林奈这样的青年人,
能在植物性生活上获得一份执着,也不比奥古斯都在雪地中打滚差强。这种青春期
的体验各人可能不一样,林奈以后的婚姻也还是很扎实稳重的。
看到维纳斯的塑像,不由得不联想到这么多。林奈的分类体系确实与性紧密关联,
这个生物学上很普遍,生物学家研究性也还是本份,比弗洛伊德本份一些。虽然弗
的博士论文是研究八目鳗幼鱼苗的脊髓,并发现其隐性器。而林奈的论文呢,在荷
兰答辩的,却是关于虐疾的,真的是一周,有点贩卖学位:
Harderwijk is en stad van negotie,
Men verkoopt er bokking, blauwbessen en bullen van promotie--
我把林奈的Sextual System示意图贴一张:
Georg Dionysius Ehret's original drawing illustrating Linnaeus's sexual system
http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/animal/2_1.html
As he proceeds to describe the functions of stamens and pistils in pollination
(sexual act). If the anthers are removed(castration), fertilization does not
take place. Pollen is the sperm, seeds are the ova, and so on. Sex in the
date palm(every date palm is either male or female) was known to the
ancients though it remained for Camerarius to prove the sexuality of plants
experimentally(1694); but problems still remained to be solved: how, for example,
did the pollen reach the ova? What Linnaeus had written was, however, not
only something almost comletely novel in Sweden, where Vaillant's pioneer
work, which he dutifully acknowledges, had as yet made hardly any impact,
it was also highly provocative. For it was a dangerous step to equate the sex
life of plants, with all its implications of polygamy, polyandry and incest, with
that of animals; and later his 'sexual system', as expounded in his System
Naturae, was to earn for Linnaeus the strong disapproval of the strait-laced.
无聊写这一贴,也是源于维纳斯身后的“坐怀不乱”,顺便涉及一点他的分类体系。
这个体系图,我在伦敦国王图书馆见过,也在Uppsala多个博物馆见闻。
to be continued...
- posted on 11/15/2010
林奈拉普兰一行,历时五个月,由春至秋,经过一整个盛夏。那午夜阳光的感觉可
见林奈的一幅随笔画:
林奈一程的行图:
Linnaeus, Carl. Expedition to Lapland. 1732. Linnaeus' expedition to Lapland.
May 12, 1732 - October 10, 1732.
陆路骑马,多是一人。拉普兰境内行程:
水陆行船,有Saami船夫与向导两人。
Linnaeus's drawing of a Lapp carrying his boat, from Lapland Journey.
林奈一行对Saami原住民的生活方式有不少记录,虽然他是植物一行,也涉及动物及
矿物,所谓的博物学三界。记忆深刻的是当地教堂对原住民的盘剥,让林奈这个牧
师之子都承受不了。我这次瑞典一行,发现瑞典教堂够冷落,象Ingmar Bergman的
电影Winter Light里的那个牧师。参观斯德哥尔摩的教堂,弥撒会都只有稀疏几个
人,来去随意,还有用吉他唱赞歌的。那时原住民受宗教迫害可凶:
Linnaeus mentions that getting to church in parts of Lycksele Lappmark in spring
often involved 'wading up to the armpits through icy water and arriving half dead
from cold and exhaustion'. The naturalist Sir James Edward Smith, who acquired
the Linnaean collections for England in 1784, comments in his edition of the
Lapland journey, 'This is no new instance of contrariety between the tyranny of
man and the gospel of Christ, whose "yoke is easy and his burthen light".' Linnaeus
was also told that when a Lapp refused to surrender objects of his religion such as
his magic drum or his idols to the missionaries, his coat would be removed and he
would be held down while the main artery in his arm was opened; he was then
left to bleed until he had promised to come to heed - a procedure, says Linnaeus,
that was 'often successful'.
植物,这一幅绘图很有意思,是Andromeda与Dragon对照,以一种极地石南与一种
毒蝾螈(Newt)作对比:
Her beauty is preserved only so long as she remains a virgin (as often happens with
women also) - i.e. until she is fertilized, which will not now be long as she is a bride.
She is anchored far out in the water, set always on a little tuft in the marsh and fast
tied as if on a rock in the midst of the sea. The water comes up to her knees, above
her roots; and she is always surrounded by poinsonous dragons and beasts - i.e. evil
toads and frogs - which drench her with water when they mate in the spring. She
stands and bows her head in grief. Then her little clusters of flowers with their rosy
cheeks droop and grow ever paler and paler.....
这花确实漂亮,原来名称也不俗, Chamaedaphne,但源于林奈的一段诗意联想便更
改了名Andromeda polifolia L. 英文Bog-rosemary。单种一属,恐怕碍于林奈大名。
中文有相近的马醉木Pieris。林奈体系出来后,遭到一些反对,此不止是性什么的,还有
对前人不敬。其实他已够恭敬的了,承继多于自创,但大凡做点事,肯定要得罪人的。记
得法国大博物学家布封就对他的体系坚决反对,可扭不过国王,不是那位阳光,路易十五
(1710-74)宣布使用林奈的分类体系。这里是Andromeda实物:
Andromeda polifolia L.
to be continued...
- posted on 11/15/2010
林奈,一个血气方刚的25岁的小伙子,旅行充满艰难,尽管他本人在后来的游记(直
到1811年才出版)中对这次旅行遇到的艰险不免又做了些夸张,但人们不能不为他的
精神感动。林奈独自一人沿着瑞典国土的东海岸线来到北方城市吕勒奥Luleå,此此
转西进入北方山区,他翻过分界瑞典与挪威的山脉 一直到达挪威一边的北冰洋海岸。
之后,他又沿原路返回东海岸,绕波腾湾进入芬兰,沿芬兰海岸线南下,最后经芬兰
和瑞典间的奥兰岛回到瑞典,重返Uppsala,整个游行五个月,行程三千多英里,旅
行的科学成就异常丰富:1737年《拉普兰植物志》由林奈的荷兰出版商出版,一处
对欧洲人来说还尚属于处女地的地方第一次得到了描述。
在瑞典北方山区和当地原住民萨米人的共同生活,使林奈对乡村的俭朴生活要比城
里舒适的生活更着迷。只要有机会,林奈就充满激情地为原始草药的回归自然的福
音做宣传。林奈1732年的拉普兰省旅行主要的目的是科学研究(尽管在林奈的研究
纲领中还包括一些古怪课题,比如其中一个研究课题是有关诺亚方舟是否在瑞典北
方的奥拉山脉靠过岸),而且林奈是在重重危险中单独完成的旅行。
关于拉普兰(Saami)文化,还有更多的图绘:
Linnaeus Lapland journey: of the making of a Lapp tent
Linnaeus's drawing of a baby Lapp in a carrier
Making thread from reindeer tendons, drawing by Linnaeus
Linnaeus's drawing of a Lapp woman's headdress
Linnaeus's drawing of ski and ski-stick
Linnaeus's notebook for the Lapland journey, discovered in his house in Uppsala
Botanic Garden(now Linnaeaus's Garden) in 1935
to be continued...
- Re: 林奈 - Carl von Linné, Carolus Linnaeusposted on 11/16/2010
中国是不是也有位林奈-----李时珍和他的『本草纲目』。 - posted on 11/16/2010
林奈拉普兰一行,是申请了资金的,好在有老摄尔修斯与小吕倍克支持,资金批准
下来了,很少的一点,400dalers。林奈拉普兰行记叙:
Having been appointed by the Royal Society of Science to travel through
Lapland for the purpose of investigation of the three kingdoms of Nature there,
I prepared my wardrobe and other necessaries for the journey as:
My clothes consisted of a little unpleated coat of West Gothland cloth with
facings and a collar of worsted shag, neat leather breeches [bought second
-hand at an auction], a pig-tailed wig, a cap of green fustian, a pair of top
boots, and a small leather bag, nearly two feet long and not quite so wide,
a gauze veil to protect me from midges, this journal and a stock of sheets
of paper, stitched together, to press plants between (both in folio), a comb,
and my manuscripts on ornithology, my Flora Uplandica and Characteres
Generici.
A short sword hung at my side, and I had a small fowling piece between my
thigh and the saddle; I also had a graduated eight-sided rod for taking
measurements. In my pocket was a wallet containing my passport from the
Governor of Uppsala and a letter of recommendation from the Society.
再添一组林奈拉普兰一行的植物图绘:
这正中的北极花,原名是Campanula serpyllifolia,Caspar Bauhin1596年给的名。
林奈在Critica Botanica中自解释说:
Linnaea was named by the celebrated Gronovius and is a plant of Lapland,
lowly, insignificant, disregarded, flowering but for a brief space - from Linnaeus
who resembles it.
Dryas octopetala,前回提到冰岛的国花,木仙花。
Erigeron
Rhododendron lapponicum, 这回在拉普兰见到不少。
Saxifraga stellaris
Pedicularis flammea, 前面提到他与老摄尔修斯一道郊生寻探Lousewort,林奈
并予更名。
林奈一行探访三界,不仅植物,还有动物、矿物,当然最关注人类。这是一些动物
图绘:
Linnaeus's drawing of a cranefly, Pedicia rivosa, syn. Tipula rivosa, made
at Umeå
Linnaeus's drawing of an owl, Strix ulula. Skellefteä
Medusas, types of jellyfish, drawn by Linnaeus
Linnaeus's drawing of a fish, probabily a trout.
Here is Linnaeus's Self-portrait, drawing of himself at Lapp observing the
mid-night sun.
to be continued...
- Re: 林奈 - Carl von Linné, Carolus Linnaeusposted on 11/16/2010
嗯,说李时珍是中国的林奈,也许是的。
但思想与方法都有区大差别,此从Theophrastus就立下根基,本草纲目植物不算多
,动植矿物有一千三百多种,也没有象样的分类命名体系。
http://www.mayacafe.com/forum/topic1sp.php3?tkey=1224618983
另本草,植物学并不纯粹。
秋子 wrote:
中国是不是也有位林奈-----李时珍和他的『本草纲目』。
- posted on 11/20/2010
林奈的画粗看没什么,但也不比现代派差到哪里,现代派马提斯米罗甚至追求五岁
童龄的趣味, 这林奈轻易就达到了。林奈把他的画给原住民看,原住民都惊叹不已
,举帽至意并倾倒在他跟前!这让我想到当年哥伦布也这样示画,让西班牙岛原住
民吃惊。说白了,就是罗马风格的实体风,现在不时行了。林奈对画有他一套看法
,这里不多述。西方人学画,未必一定要当画家,画画的领域广泛得很,服装设计
,建筑图绘,机械与花园设计,自然图绘,地图,示意图,Graphics design,广
告设计,版图,插图,画书,速写,素描,Tracing,水彩,炭画,油画,壁画,
漫画,印染织毯,甚至Graffiti,喷漆撒墨,裸体着颜料打滚,猩猩乱涂鸦……涉及
全社会,职业也多。不一定只是哪一家博物馆能涵盖。
我以为林奈的画很珍贵,那么多文字,都没有这些画说事来得轻易。但我也没法逃脱
文字中的一行,不然太草率了。最近为这一线伤了不少心机,想草草从事,快快结束
,但对不起我自己。感恩节快到了,本来打算年底前写三十六贴,现在看来三分之一
还不到,只能暗然发愿,全力以赴。当然,感激林奈是应该的,这一线最受惠的还是
我自己。
林奈在拉普兰行一路关注苔鲜,真菌,也就是魔菇之类。Fungus,以前是植物王国
的,现在单列一界。林奈在《拉普兰植物志》中提到一种能诱发爱情的真菌-Boletus
suaveolens,咖啡透露一下:
When a Lapland youth finds this fungus he preserves it carefully in a little
pouch hanging from his waist, so that its grateful scent may make him more
acceptable to the girl he is courting. O whimsical Venus! In other parts of
the world you must be wooed with coffee and chocolate, preserves and
sweets, wines and dainties, jewels and pearls, gold and silver, silks and
cosmetics,balls and assemblies, concerts and plays; here you are satisfied
with a litle withered fungus!
拉普兰行Lycksele一段插曲中林奈留意到一幅马嚼骨:
the under-jaw of a horse, having six fore-teeth, much worn and blunted,
two canine teeth, and at a certain distance from the latter twelve grinders,
six on each side. If only I knew how many teeth and of what kind every
animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps
be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all
quadrupeds.
J.E.Smith说,这一节涉及到四足类(以后林奈更正为Mammal哺乳类)分类的凭依。
在Skellefteå左右,他看到一只猫头鹰飞过,射击,因伤害太烈制不成标本,只好绘
一图(上列)。沿Bothnia湾要到Piteå旧城,遭遇到一大片Midges: such swarms of
midges as surpass all imagination. The air seemed to be solid with them...
They filled my mouth, nose and eyes, for they made no attempt to get out
of my way. Luckily they did not try to bite or sting me, though they almost
suffocated me. When I clutched as the cloud before me, my hands were
filled with thousands of thes insects, all far too small to describe, which
were instantly crushed to death.
在Piteå的田野上,他留意到一群受激中的牛:
Even the leanest cows, which one would have thought were hardly able
to walk, raced like deer in a field, their tails curling, running and leaping till
finally they came to a pond, where they halted, thinking to have found a
place of refuge from the enemy. I hastened to try to see what drove them
with a force greater than the whip or even death itself, and found that it
was something that I had already encourtered, namely Oestrus bovi. These
gadflies do not attck the body, but the feet - between the larger and smaller
hooves: the insect seldom if ever flies more than two or three spans from
the ground and mostly at half that height. The cattle run until they find
water in which to stand, so that the gadflies cannot harm them.
到了吕勒奥Luleå,Lars Vallman给了他一个拉普兰女帽,这也许就是他图像上的。
Title page of 'Flora Lapponica' by Carolus Linnaeus
to be continued... - posted on 11/20/2010
在拉普兰上花这么多笔墨,有些重此轻彼。但一般关于林奈的书中都突出林奈此行,
并有不少专书,况且还有英文诵体诗,此包括王尔德都不例外。重此轻彼,也是有
的放矢,因为是头一回,资金不足,赤寒的北方极地。林奈以后的旅行辎重随行都
特别,当然不能跟此一行相提并论。也许成就不差于此,但值得记叙的东西就不多
了。。。
前两天把前面十二个贴子的内容勘误了一下,纠正了错别字,添了一些内容。了却
了前三分之一,可是还是不能了却拉普兰一行。林奈的足迹我也只涉及到Uppsala,
Stockholm和拉普兰一点点。林奈在欧洲游行,伦敦的林奈博物馆都无缘涉足。我
去伦敦那会,达尔文两百年诞辰闹得正烈,林奈的三百年,就没有多少热闹。这回
在Uppsala大学博物馆还是达尔文展。瑞典毕竟不能比大英,但林奈比达尔文要高
级,象音乐上的巴赫与贝多芬。
Jokkmokk行Purkijaur中,林奈遇到一些珍珠渔人,他们打捞大量的珍珠母,打开
上千个才能寻到一颗珍珠。他寻思这珍珠是珠母体内病致,并想,Any one who
could induce this illness in mussels could make them produce pearls; if
one could, what could be more profitable.
以后他还真靠这个发明获利,获奖金并于同期授爵!
又有一群Gadflies引起他的注意:The pregnant gadfly pursues the reindeer all
day long, up hill and down dale, perpetually trying to lay her eggs on their
backs(and so that she may survive in these icy mountains, the Creator has
completely covered her with hairs). The reindeer, even if there is a herd of
a thousand of them kick, snort and never stop frisking about as long as a
single weak, defenceless little fly is buzzing over them; not until after she
has gone do they desist for a second, so that if an egg has chanced to fall
upon one of their backs it may be dislodged....
Oh, with what a variety of arrows Cupid inflicts his wounds!
此解释了驯鹿皮上的斑缺,不象传统以Smallpox以解释,当然原住民都清楚无比。
这一程从海滨到海滨,一段从瑞典Luleå到挪威Sørfold的拉普兰插曲,林奈游记中记
载不少Saami人的生活细节:
The people - there're sixteen of them - lay naked. They washed themselves
by rubbing themselves down, not up, and did not dry themselves. They
cleaned their bowls with their fingers, spitting water out of their mouth on
the spoon, and scooped out their boiled reindeer milk which was thick like
milk-and-egg soup and very strong.
In the morning about 2,000 reindeer came in and were milked by both man
and women, who knelt on one knee....I was given whey to eat....It tasted
good and strong, but my appetite was spoiled by the way the spoon was
cleaned; for the husband took water into his mouth and spat on the spoon,
then cleaned and dried it with his fingers. The wife cleaned with her fingers
the bowl that held the milk, licking them after every stroke.
在挪威Sørfold林奈遇到一位佳人Sara, 一位牧师的女儿:of Pastor Johan Rask and his
'quite remarkably beautiful eighteen-year-old daughter, Sara'. Rask was a
much travelled man, having been in the West Indies as well as Africa; he
had published an account of his journeys in which he described various fish
and plants he had seen. The visit was a success: Linnaeus was overwhelmed
by Sara's beauty. Rask, after giving his guest a rather frigid reception, soon
warmed to him, while Sara confessed that 'she had never expected to meet
an honest Swede' but that here was the exception that proved the rule.
Linnaeus was royally entertained, given by Sara various recipes for making
bread, and by her father, at his departure, a fine and valuable Venus's shell.
两天后,一七三二年七月十五日,他离开了心爱的Sara,展开登山回瑞典的行旅。关
于Sara这个名字,以后他的妻子也是一个Sara,还有一个心爱的女儿Sara。Sara这
个名字与他一生紧密相连。
...Down Luleå haunted stram
His vent'rous bark pursues its way,
While round the waving meteors gleam,
And cataracts urge their dashing spray.
半个月回到Luleå,八月三号到Torneå,(å发o音)。Bothnia湾的顶端,邻接芬兰。
此间有一段北方行旅,被后世学者探为虚,并引新发现有林奈拉普兰笔记本为据。此
等学术争议就免了,反正林奈肯定作了虚,激情过度,字写多了这本难免。
Dean Abraham Fougt added 100 copper dalers to help him home. Linnaeus
made himself popular by solving the mystery of a distemper which each
year killed large quantities of cattle; it was caused, he found, by their
eating the highly poisonous water-hemlock which grew in profusion in the
water-meadows there.
林奈是从芬兰折回的,因为语言的问题,芬兰他也没能探访更多。回来后整理写了拉
普兰游记,上面已给了封面(后世发现他有不少杜撰Malstrøm, Caituma, Vittangi)
,标题是拉文, 内容却是瑞典文。另外他还写了Flora Lapponica,拉普兰植物志头
一回使用他的Sexual System分类。
最后我引两段拉普兰的习俗,林奈的观点及分析。最后一点用鼻子亲吻的习俗,以后
有学者论述恐怕不确:
The Lapps protect their necks by means of thick collars, without which
they would never survive in such intense cold. For these sensitive parts
of the body, which have so many nverves, muscles, windpipes, veins and
marvellous arteries, are inevitably, as the smallest and least warm, the
most susceptible to injury. And so, unfortunately, our girls and youths tie
scarves round their necks until they are as red as if they were strangulated.
We Swedes are swaddled in our clothes. Neckcloth, jacket, waistcoat,
breeches, stockings, overcoats, etc., are all tight-fitting; and the tighter
they are, the more fashionable.
When my guide came in, he put his nose close to that of the person he
wanted to greet, as if he intended to kiss him....I asked whether they actually
kissed each other, and he said, no, that they only put their noses together
and that it was only relations who greeted one another thus.
Iter Lapponicum, Carolus Linnaeus
林奈在拉普兰原住民处学习了许多生活技能,并将之冠以奥维德提的白银时代:Their
soil is unwounded by the plough, their lives by the clash of arms. They have
not found their way into the bowels of the earth; they do not wage wars
to establish territorial boundaries. They wander from place to place, live in
tents, lead the patriarchal life of shepherds of old.
此后他名声大振,不少人邀请他作行省植物探研。
to be continued...
- posted on 11/22/2010
接下来怎么写?当然要以林奈为经络,我拉普兰一行,行程短暂,基本没吃苦,植
物标本稀稀,花季早过。我在Uppsala市逗留了两日后坐夜班卧车到瑞典拉普兰的小
心市镇Kiruna的。因为不是周末,火车上乘客少,坐车几乎一节都没人,或偶尔一
两人,跟我周末回乘大相迥异。记得在行前订的是卧车票,单乘980skr,扣合一百
三十多美元。瑞典物价普遍贵,北欧都是,但服务质量上乘,又是那么冰荒人少之
地。上车乘务员指示我这不是头等卧车,还得补470skr,于是在坐车看尽日落,那
一片平整田野,以前是大海,不久前才升起来的陆地。我坐的卧车国内应该是软卧,
一人住一间,总共没多少人,还带淋浴间,确实够舒服的。这样到拉普兰一行,自
然不能跟林奈相提并论。
旅游盛季已过,或者另一个盛季还未到。我到拉普兰去,一是要看看原住民、原生
态植物之类,一是逮机会试运气能否看到北极光。这一行还有一个意外收获,就是
顺便拐到挪威的良港Narvik,触了触北冰洋水(严格说挪威海不是北冰洋,巴伦支
海才是,但这里比冰岛北滨北多了,入北极圈已很深,很深。人们都这么说,况且
水域相连,我也只触及一内海湾,但有一份心!)。拉普兰一带泰国人不少,还有
阿拉伯人。泰国人开餐馆,让我能尝到东方口味,虽然有些不喜欢了,但胃口不舒
服时还得由之,况且价廉物美。阿拉伯人是因为瑞典接纳的战争难民,那还是Olof
Palme时的事吧。Olof在瑞典的政绩不错,是相当有影响力的国际政治人物,后被
刺,斯德哥尔摩留有他被刺时的足迹。在坐车厢结识一位阿拉伯人律师,他原国度
叫Eritrean,当然知道我是中国人。我们在上车前就聊了聊,后来在餐车中聊,他
已在瑞典二十多年,瑞典大学教育,家住在北极圈外的Gallivare,比林奈一行中的
Jokkmokk还北,身边一位娇小的妻,典型的埃塞俄比亚人,不会讲英语。Eritrean
才从Ethiopia独立不久,我还真是头一回听说。他很佩服中国,但听说我已不是中
国人了,况且到拉普兰来没有生意,也无任何研究课题,渐渐对我不感兴趣了。
我也不想把这些路中的鸡毛蒜皮拿来打扰了林奈一线安宁。但心中一团乱麻,书读
的愈多愈下不了笔,还是把自己心中的乱和自卑打理一下。按理说,不到瑞典一行
也不会写这一线,但写这一线不提到自己的见闻,全是抄书贴图也不是事情。间夹
着来吧,想到哪里写哪里,我想写出十八贴之后,自然脉络会清晰。后面怎么写我
还是分明,我杂乱的旅行可以间插提供一点实据,让人有一点时间与空间上的实在
感即是。况且如果单纯写我的行旅,那当然是不堪目睹,也不必要吃力不讨好,我
有自己的日记,自己看就是了,如果编成一个人的游记,肯定是单薄,无聊,自找
没趣。
在Kiruna第一件事是找住宿,一找就找到Saami人文化中心。可惜当天已满,搁下
背包看展品不错。北欧哪里都是人少,Kiruna这著名的钢铁城,拉普兰文化中心也
一样。在冰岛感觉到有些小镇只有29人,觉得特别,这里何尝不是?突然想起来阿
拉斯加也是。原住民浪迹天涯,也是智者们的天堂。Saami人文化展,还是Viking文
化展,在纽约很难遇见。整个大都会博物馆都找不出几件Viking文物,Saami人文化
倒还是十年前在自然史博物馆遇过一次,当时不觉得什么,现在才珍惜起来,总归
还是因为探险这个课题。文化中心倒是纯粹,也不收费,一个小箱子,自己看着给
就是。展品边上有英文解说单,一个人读着很静心。Saami人桦木用得很多,还有驯
鹿,这两样基本上成了他们的文化原本,Saami人文化上跟芬兰来得近,语言也近,
面相上跟东亚有些象。有时我觉得这是饮食习性导致,不一定有DNA渊源。但他们
的语言确实不是印欧语系,不象Viking。
在展馆我留心得最多的是Lapland诗人的诗,摘抄了不少,一并示下:
Painful love - Paulus Utsi 'Giela gielan'
Like a crooked birch
on the edge of a mountain
thus is my life,
punished by the wind.
Like the trunk of the birch
shows up against the bare ground
thus I long for the mountain
the level ground and the dwelling places.
It is my life
that I love
& Nils-Aslak Walkeapää "The Last expanses within me"
Did anyone tell you
that We live in Sámi land
Did he say
that this is Sápmi
Did he even admit
that it is ours?
Did not he tell about
the primitive culture
of simple people?
Or did he claim that
they had come with the light?
&Mari Boine "Hear the voice of the primeval mother"
Listen brother
listen sister
listen to the voice of the ancestors
Why do you let the world suffer,
be poisoned and tormented?
Listen brother
listen sister
Hear the voice of the primeval mothers
The earth is our mother
if We take her life
We die too.
Have you also been hurt?
Are even you a part of the race?
Listen
They ask you
Have you forgotten where you come from?
You have brothers
You have sisters
in the rainforests of South America
on Greenland's barren coast
Have you forgotten where you come from?
无意间我在网上撞见上面这三首,在这个网站都有,看来是很有名的:
http://www.gfbv.at/dossiers/sami.htm
&
Mari Boine - Eallin(Life)
I wanted to give you a gift. Life
extend it to love
and a kiss
on sister and brother's cheeks
those who no longer had the strenth
those who had lost the faith
in Qingdorn, Justice and Rights
for people
and also tomorrow.
(还有Mari Boine这一首“生”,谱成的歌曲,有点拉普兰原住风):
and such. Life
wanted to fly far
give life
to people
who no logner are
and those who will soon disappear
yes, and such. Life
I wish
them
who see light and beauty
who know people and love
who wait for tomorrow and believe in it
what joy makes its nest and beauty that happy
fills the nest
and love.
to be continued...
- posted on 11/22/2010
林奈从拉普兰回来后,屋里的杂物堆得象博物馆,我是说象自然史博物馆,或早先巴
黎自然史博物馆那样子的。关于此博物馆的样子,他好友有具体的描述,上面也引
叙过了,见第三贴。看来我还得学那一条赤道线,每贴添一个数目字并标题,慢慢
来。林奈花了许多时间写拉普兰植物志,不是上面提的那一本,是一本更小一些的
Florula Lapponica,里面头一回贯彻应用他的性征分类体系。这第一手的工作就够
他忙的,他自嘲象一只母鸡,每天都要下一个蛋。当然,最后集成的Flora Lapponica
是一七三七年出版的,这还是一七三二年。为一行的费用短缺,还有行中借贷,他与
Uppsala科学会闹得不欢,最后科学会只补还了他借贷,也许是上面提到的Torneå
Dean Abraham Fougt 100 copper dalers这一笔。他申请再多122 silver dalers,
得到40 silver dalers, 1 silver dalers = 2.5 copper dalers?为些林奈夸大杜撰
一行的艰难,探险,以至于以后想当然成书。当然,Uppsala科学基金会还是答应他
60 platers(1 plater=2 silver dalers),半年一笔,分两笔付清,源于Wrede基金
。瑞典当时很穷,这也是不得已。
最近我写字关注起钱来,原因是林奈一生大都在经济迥迫中。况且,西方文化中钱
极要害,不可忽略了谈,否则空谈。后来提到林奈欧洲游学,他父亲一分钱付不起,
Uppsala大学前是家里给的最后一笔。他怎么办呢?有说结婚,他是选择陪富家公
子游学,陪读的身份。
下一年(1733)六月六日,林奈的母亲去逝,家境一派冷落,他回访中说。
林奈虽然是学生,但一直在大学带课,还是最受欢迎的老师。一般课上只有四五十
学生,他的课听讲者达到三四百人。拉普兰行后,自然史课更受欢迎。林奈的声音
很低,带着乡音,但富戏剧性,抑扬顿措的,人们自然好领会。林奈的学生中有不少
富家子弟,这一天冬天,他被Claes Sohlber邀请而Falun的家中过圣诞。
Falun是一个矿物大省,其实瑞典整个经济都离不开矿业,似乎是家业的最重要的
一部分,这让我想到以后洪堡替西班牙国王到新西班牙及中南美赤道一行探矿,这
是其中最重要的使命,有关国民经济。林奈学涉三界,在这一条线下,他的动物与
矿物研究我尽量省略一些。林奈走木梯走入到矿井,惊叹与矿工们非人的工作条件,
他比之地狱。
Almighty god, Creator and Preserver of all things, who
On Lapland fells suffered me to ascend so high
In Falun mines to descend so low,
On Lapland fells suffered me to be where cold is never-ending,
In Falun mines where heat is never-ending,
On Lapland fells suffered me to see in one place all the four seasons,
In Falun mines not one of the four seasons,
In Lapland led me unharmed through so many mortal dangers,
In Falun through so many perils to health,
Prased be all Thou hast created
From the beginning to the end.
林奈以此诗结束他一行游记。林奈的诗就是这么样,把拉普兰比天,Falun矿井比地
狱。典型的自然主义者的思维,比较原汁,不娇情。
林奈在法伦一呆不归,带了不少私人富家子,当然生活得很不错。一度,他们合起一
次法伦省达拉那省的自然探索行,行程520英里,历时四十九天。这回八个人同行,
有地理学家兼牧师,有动物学家,有土壤医疗矿物学家。还有一位美国人,这是林奈
弟子中不多的一位。
The little band of eager young men - Stoever describes them as 'a kind
of caravan of naturalists' - set out from Falun on the morning of 3 July
1734, though it appears that from time to time the party split up in order
to cover more ground. Sometimes they travellled on horse-back, sometimes
by boat; sometimes a friendly paster gave them beds, sometimes they
slept in barns. Each everning the accumulated experiences of the day
were duly recorded in a journal.
Iter Dalecarlium - The Fair flower of Falun
Up a thousand feet, Tom,
round the lion's head,
Find soft stones to leeward
and make up our bed.
Eat our bread and bacon,
Smoke the pipe of peace,
And, ere we be drowsy,
Give our boots a grease.
Homer's heroes did so,
Why not such as we?
What are sheets and servants? -
Suprefluity. --Kingsley
图中橙黄色的是林奈一行八人法伦省自然探行,林奈游记Iter Dalecarlium。Dalarna
是瑞典那一带的自然名称。1734年达拉那省旅行则是以经济利益为目的,法伦省的
省长赞助这次旅行,旅行主要探测这一地区的山中尚未被发现的自然资源,以及探
测挪威勒罗矿山的活动。这次旅行林奈带领着一队学生,他们为他充当助手,同时期
待从这位年轻的领队那里学习知识。
时来运会,功夫不负有心人,双喜临门。一则是Claes Sohlberg的父亲要他陪儿子欧
洲游学,这对穷学生林奈是天赐的留学机会,每年还有300 copper dalers的年金。
林奈欣然接纳!二则,在Sohlberg家,他遇到一位心中人Sara Lisa Moraea,也正
十八岁,与挪威拉普兰海滨遇到的那位佳人同名。林奈感觉'the desire to live and to die'
(and who would, incidentally, bring a fairly substantial dowry with her)。
'the Fair Flower of Falun', Sara的父亲是市镇医生,夫妻坚决反对。可是扭不过女
儿的心愿,据说,Sara比林奈高过二十公分,但她能看得出林奈的前程。
林奈留学前只考了一门神学,这被证明是林奈在瑞典大学唯一考过的试。行前归家'My
mother was missing, and I felt her loss. In the house everything was in confusion.'
He found his father depressed, lonely in spite of the company of his younger son
and his three daughters, in dread of the future, and unhappy that he was not
in a positon to contribute anything towards the expenses of Carl's journey.
to be continued...
- Re: 林奈 - Carl von Linné, Carolus Linnaeusposted on 11/23/2010
"Eallin", 很不錯, 敲打聽覺神經. 和和.
讀此線, 才想起"鍥而不舍"一詞. - posted on 11/23/2010
那时就是从Uppsala乘船到Amsterdam也不容易,关健是没有航班,得一路搭便船,
象现在的背包客搭车。当然车多,那时船也稀少,那年代人读书,怕都是等马车坐船
养出的耐性,现在比不了。Claes林奈二人在丹麦停一站Elsinore,等了五天去荷兰
的船不果,只好改乘去德国Lübeck附近的船,走陆路到汉堡,再由汉堡水路漂浮到
荷兰。
才将出波罗的海,又折回波罗的海的德国海滨,总算是大陆。多日漂泊后的林奈,在
游记Iter ad Exteros对荆豆发出赞美上帝的歌:with its flat fields and charming
arable land, its groves of beech and oak, was a paradise. It was glorious
summer weather....Gorse with its lovely yellow flowers was growing among
the heather.
以后英国浪漫派传闻,把这段经历移置到了英国,溢满赞美之辞:
Linnaeus and the Gorse - Emily Carrington
Over the heath the golden gorse is glowing,
And making glad the breeze;
And lo! a traveller by the wayside going
Falls low upon his knees;
And thanks God for such a glorious vision,
And such a rich perfume
As met him in what seemed a dream Elysian,
Far from his northern home.
So felt the great Linnaeus, when before him
The yellow gorse spread out...
'Linnaeus fell on his knees and wept for joy when he saw for the first time
the long heath of some English upland made yellow with the tawny aromatic
blossoms of the common furze...(Oscar Wilde, De Profundis)
此可见英国人对林奈的迷信是全方位的,英国文学艺术也是全方位。此不仅在英国,
德国的歌德,法国的卢梭,西班牙王家,俄国的叶卡塞琳娜都一样推举他,似乎林奈
成了上层与启蒙与理性的代表。倒是现在,他几乎被淡忘掉了,至少退出了世俗的层
面。我读汉语的林奈,发现字数稀少而且误会很大。当然林奈生平传说很多,但他
都作了很好记录,由英国林奈会出版。误会,大凡是读了转手的资料,我想写一些字
,尽量使用第一手资料,核查地图。其实我写字身边一直要有一个地图,或地球仪,
许多外国地名,自己没去过,没有办法不使用原名。
林奈在汉堡逗留了一段时间,发现他在此已有声名,也许是小摄尔修斯(林奈崇拜者
)的引介。这样他与科学界,尤其是自然史学(以前称博物学)界有了交流。因为身边
携带了许多手稿,标本,整理发表一些论作。那时博物学家间互相展示,有点当年
集邮者展示交换邮票似的,但收藏者多是富豪或有名望者,除了林奈是个穷光蛋。
林奈最爱展示的就是他的拉普兰装束,还有他上千昆虫样品,多是拉普兰与德拉那
收集的。植物标本太多,估计不便都携带。
汉堡我也没去过,查地图就在易北河源,这样去荷兰有水路。那年代,水路比陆路
快得多,还要看风向气候,林奈到此已是初夏了。汉堡当时有一件判伪Hamburg
hydra的事,有一条七首怪蜥,最后被林奈证虚。这事情书上传闻得多,我觉得没意
思。在汉堡,他头一回看见犹太人,并对他们进行不带偏见的观察并记录。我觉得
最美的待遇还是来自博物界,有一位Prof Kohl,是Hamburgische Berichte杂志编
辑,对他赞誉很高,并引介他认识Dr Jaenisch,林奈后来一直称呼为“唯一真友”!
有一位律师朋友Johan Heinrich von Spreckelsen收藏有四十五种芦荟(aloe),五十
种仙梅(mesembryanthemums, 南非开普顿花卉),还有许多化石,让林奈大开眼界,
远方的世界,无论是东印度还是西印度顿即畅开。律师还有相当好的藏书,林奈展
示他的昆虫样本,得借Patrick Blair's Botanick Essys(1720)。
以后,林奈以他命名石蒜科的一属植物,Sprekelia:
Sprekelia formosissima
几日后林奈走访Dr Fabricius的图书馆:we saw Dr Fabricius's incredibly large
library, consisting of a series of rooms whose walls were as if papered
with books...He lent me Ray's Historia [Plantarum] and Bradley's works.
A man of about sixty, slim.由此,林奈接触到英国博物学家John Ray的分类学思
想。John Ray虽然未终结Theophrastus以来的大业,但也提出六点建议。并尝试给
物种作了定义:
"... no surer criterion for determining species has occurred to me than the
distinguishing features that perpetuate themselves in propagation from seed.
Thus, no matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if
they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental
variations and not such as to distinguish a species...Animals likewise that differ
specifically preserve their distinct species permanently; one species never
springs from the seed of another nor vice versa". -- Historia Plantarum
to be continued...
- posted on 11/23/2010
说林奈一个礼拜拿到博士学位,时间是真的,学位嘛,就怕有点克莱登。上面引的
两句顺口溜,Harderwijk is en stad van negotie, Men verkoopt er bokking,
blauwbessen en bullen van promotie--译成汉语就是:
Harderwijk是一个商业城, 批量出售bloaters, bilberries和学位。
我想到钱钟书的《围城》也仿佛是一个爱尔兰人在贩卖学位,我还有记忆:至多出
一百美金,先寄三十,文凭到手,再寄余款;此间尚有中 国同学三十余人,皆愿照
此办法向贵校接洽。爱尔兰人起初不想答应,后来看方鸿渐语气坚决,又就近打听出
来美国博士头衔确在中国时髦,渐渐相信欧洲真有三十多条中国糊涂虫, 要向他买
文凭。他并且探出来做这种买卖的同行很多,例如东方大学、东美合众国大学,联
合大学、真理大学等等,便宜的 可以十块美金出买硕士文凭,神玄大学廉价一起奉
送三种博士文凭;这都是堂堂立案注册的学校,自己万万比不上。于是他抱薄利畅销
的宗旨,跟鸿渐生意成交。他收到三十美金,印了四五十张空白文赁填好一 张,寄给
鸿渐,附信催他缴款和通知其他学生来接洽。鸿渐回信道,经详细调查,美国并无这
个学校,文凭等于废纸,姑念初犯,不予追究,希望悔过自新,汇上十美金聊充改行
的本 钱,爱尔兰人气得咒骂个不停,喝醉酒,红着眼要找中国人打架,这事也许是
中国自有外交或订商约以来唯一的胜利。。只是方鸿渐不该在德国买美国学位。
林奈一行艰辛万苦坐船到了阿姆斯特丹,却拐到小城Harderwijk拿博士学位。当然
Harderwijk大学是真的,就象美国Creighton大学也是真的(待中国崛起了,搞一个
方鸿渐或钱钟书半身像也说不定:)。林奈拿学位过程也值一书:
The little fishing town, Harderwijk, was the seat of a university which did
a thriving trade in cut-priced 'instant' degrees for which only the briefest
residence was required, and Linnaeus, like many of his countrymen, proposed
to take advantage of it.
Linnaeus handed in a thesis, written before leaving Sweden, on 'A new
hypothesis as to the cause of intermitten fevers[malaria]' - his theory being
that they resulted from living on a clay soil. An oral examintaion followed,
after which he wrote an exposition of two of Hippocrates' Aphorisms, diagnosed
and prescribed treatment for a case of jaundice, and was duly declared a
medical candidate. Next day his 'promoter', Professor Jan de Gorter, returned
the thesis marked 'imprimatur'(let it be printed, xw); for debate on 23 June.
Three days waiting, both of them attended private lectures by de Gorter,
visted his son David. Then came to debate, afterwards gold ring, silk hat and
diploma and inscribed his name in the album Doctorum.
林奈付了多少钱不知道,但同时Claes Sohlberg也该拿了博士学位。这学位正象钱钟
书说的,回国蒙人用的。二十八岁,林奈拿了医学博士。相比当今美国,要拿个医
生博士不止七年,林奈七天就弄到了。Harderwijk大学后来当然以林奈自豪并塑像。
当然,林奈生活没有任何改善。这以后不久,陪主Claes该是回国了,林奈又一次面
临生计危机。
林奈在阿姆斯特丹先行遇到两位大智,一位是年轻的植物园长Johannes Burmann,
另一位Albert Seba,写著名的Thesaurus的那一位:
Albertus Seba, Thesaurus, Hamburg hydra
荷兰的Leiden大学顶有名,当时有一位世界闻名的博物学家Herman Boerhaave。他
有多出名,说是当时中国人寄一封信'a Monsieur Boerhaave, Europa'他都能收到。
教皇跟他通信请教问题,俄彼得大帝得亲访他,更有一回,伏尔泰受菲特烈(其时还不
是大帝)邀路过Leiden拜访他,可惜因为是无神论者,被拒之门外。
林奈和他见面曲折,原因是林奈或是他的崇拜者在汉堡杂志上瞎吹他已与Boerhaave
通讯,用Boerhaave抬高自己。这种瞎杜撰让老先生生气!依林奈笔记,Boerhaave
一位怪老头:
'corpulent, tall, curly-haired, hook-nosed, going bald. Had not visited his
nearest neighbours or his relations for twenty years. Saw patients daily from
9 to 11 a.m., lectured in public at 11, from 1 to 2 in private, at 3 publicly...
Slept without a night cap, never had a fire in his bedroom, drank no wine, tea
or coffee, and never smoked.' He said:'if I dress before a fire when I get up,
I am soon tired; but if I dress in the cold I am brisk.'
第一回见面因不知付管家门费而被拒,另外,他还得有推荐信。林奈识人快,那时幸
好他与另一位教授熟,Johan Gronovius the young。Gronovius就是林奈的北极花
Linnaea证名人,不知是不是委托,前面引述过了。林奈向Gronovius展示自己宏观思
想的大作Systema Naturae,包括自然三界。Gronovius深深感动,并叹自Konrad
Gesner以来没有第二个人有林奈这么博学与深思。他答应作引荐。林奈寄出引荐信,
一周没回音。Boerhaave不喜欢青年人太自负,有人说嫉妒。。但终究他们还是见面
了,并成为知己。林奈及后发表的《拉普兰植物志》就是由他作序,并题献给他的。
他们头一次见面的具体细节有点斗识斗书斗智,Boerhaave花园中有一棵花楸Sorbus,
尚未鉴定过。林奈一眼即识,不愧来自北国,瑞典遍地花楸。(林奈说过:一个系统植
物学家,应一眼即识植物方位,未必说得出理由!)他陈述说Vaillant已在Botanicon
Parisiense描述过。待Boerhaave把书找来,果然是。
Boerhaave给林奈一些人生经验,着重申诉:You should never reply to any con-
troversial writers. Promise me you will not。林奈跟他承诺了。这个经验,以后歌
德学到手,卢梭没有,卢梭晚年感慨:If only I had imitated the Uppsala professor,
I would have won a few days of happiness and years of peace mind。
to be continued...
- posted on 11/24/2010
昨天刚写完第十八贴,感到顺手多了,后面不难。前天早晨写拉普兰,写着写着就
步入灵感,不是一路上琐碎,是拉普兰那些首诗与歌。我在拉普兰也随写了些诗,
搁在笔记本中都忘了,有空还得整理。可叹的是,不觉中有一颗脚趾头冻坏,至今
还在痛。。昨天抽Prince烟,才又感到上好的口感,感恩节快到了,家里杂事多,
看能赶出几贴。
上贴说到John Ray的六点建议,也是一个临终之人三十年奋进未能完成的心愿:In the
Methodus plantarum emendata, he lists his rules for grouping plants according
to their natural affinities. Plant names must be changed as little as possible
to avoid confusion and mistakes; the characteristics of a group must be clearly
defined and not rely on comparison (this had been a marked feature of early
descriptions when there were no agreed standards - leaves were 'bigger than
box' or 'not so indented as ivy'); characteristics must be obvious and easy to
grasp; groups approved by most plantsmen should be preserved; related plants
should not be separated; the characteristics used to define should not be
unnecessarily increased.
John Ray
这六项原则为以后植物分类学(Taxonomy)的发展奠定了基石。
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
Methodus plantarum emendata源于他与Joseph Pitton de Tournefort的分
歧,两年当面为Historia争执,不说英法之争。那时荷兰阿姆斯特丹是学术与出版
中心,de Tournefort正好脚趾在酸痛中,用药水泡脚。John Ray倾向使用枝叶等
多种辨别特征,Tournefort只使用花瓣,并未关注花蕊及性。以后Vaillant对植物
的性生活的研究给林奈铺了路,林奈注重雄雌蕊,当然观察上一步步细致起来。林
奈把植物分二十三classes,外加一门隐花类,无花果之类,前面给了图绘。Class
现在要说是纲,纲下分目,再种,那时还未提科。而种Genus现在称作属,底下再
分细物种,而在林奈一直以为Genus以下则大同小异,颇直观,也与一般人的观点
相近似。
言归正传,把时间拉回到荷兰生活无着落中的青年林奈。前面提到过他在Uppsala大
学结交的一个志同道合的好友Petrus Artedi,他们都曾有宏大理想,分工协作,并
曾作约定:谁先死,后者要将他未完成的事业终结。当时他们分工是林奈植物界,
除了伞形一种,动物界,鱼是Artedi的,林奈有鸟和昆虫…这样的协作在启蒙时代
是很广泛的,歌德与席勒,洪堡与Aimé Bonpland,以后雪莱拜伦,甚至梵高兄弟
,洛尔伽达利都是。。这回他们在荷兰又见面了。那时,Artedi留学英国把钱用得
一干二净(那时候学生是学真知识,并不在乎学位,钱学光了就结束了,学位本挣不
了半文钱),倒是在John Ray和Francis Willughby那里学到一手鱼类学的真功夫。
nothing more delightful could have happened to either of us, and our tears
showed what joy we felt. I told my story, and he his: what kind of life he
had led in London; the many splendid observations which he had made
among the ichthyologiests; how he had enjoyed the favour of various scholars,
especially that of the illustrious Sloane, the kindness and generosity
of whose reception he lovingly described; the many museums he had
visited; the affection and high opinion therfore entertained by him of England
and the English. He now wanted to take a doctorate in medicine; but he
had been made penniless by the expenses of his journey and was worried
about how to get clothes, food and all the books he needed for his work.
He was therefore thinking of returning home.
Artedi正在写一本鱼类学专著,林奈自然以衣相赠。前面说Seba写Thesaurus正缺
乏鱼类学人才,林奈无助,欣然将他引介。林奈自己也得到他的帮助,那时他手头的
初稿Systema Naturae正缺鱼类,这样头一版便全面了。也是在Gronovius的极力
鼓动下,林奈出版了这部所谓林奈工程的作品,其时只是初版的十几页,但是大幅版
面的系统图书,以后这书一再翻版,终至2300页。有人名之为人类历史智慧上最伟大
的作品,但初版也一样有价值,市场拍卖价,因为初版量少,物以稀贵。
The 1735 classification of animals
1. Mammalia comprised the mammals. In the first edition, whales and the West Indian Manatee were classified among the fishes.
2. Aves comprised the birds. Linnaeus was the first to remove bats from the birds and classify them under mammals.
3. Amphibia comprised amphibians, reptiles, and assorted fishes that are not of Osteichthyes.
4. Pisces comprised the bony fishes. These included the spiny-finned fishes (Perciformes) as a separate order.
5. Insecta comprised all arthropods. Crustaceans, arachnids & myriapods were included as the order "Aptera".
5. Vermes comprised the remaining invertebrates, roughly divided into "worms", molluscs and hard-shelled organisms like echinoderms.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae
Key to the Sexual System (from the 10th (1758) edition of the Systema Naturæ)
Classis 1. Monandria, Classis 2. Diandria, Classis 3. Triandria,
Classis 4. Tetrandria, Classis 5. Pentandria, Classis 6. Hexandria,
Classis 7. Heptandria, Classis 8. Octandria, Classis 9. Enneandria,
Classis 10. Decandria, Classis 11. Dodecandria, Classis 12. Icosandria,
Classis 13. Polyandra, Classis 14. Didynamia, Classis 15. Tetradynamia,
Classis 16. Monadelphia, Classis 17. Diadelphia, Classis 18. Polyadelphia,
Classis 19. Syngenesia, Classis 20. Gynandria, Classis 21. Monoecia,
Classis 22. Dioecia, Classis 23. Polygamia,
Classis 24. Cryptogamia
to be continued...
- Re: 林奈 - Carl von Linné, Carolus Linnaeusposted on 11/24/2010
遠山 wrote:
"Eallin", 很不錯, 敲打聽覺神經. 和和.
讀此線, 才想起"鍥而不舍"一詞.
谢远山动静,此后应该上手多了。
锲而不舍,在林奈面前,谁能不锲而不舍?
Happy Thansgiving! - posted on 11/24/2010
林奈工程,这是一个如此巨大的工程,《自然系统》不断翻新出版,从1735年的初
版只包含十四页的小册子到1766-1768年出版的厚达2300页,包容了1.5万多矿物
,植物和动物的种类。为如此众多的物种进行命名与分类已经是不可多得的成就,
而这只是一项永远无法完成的工程的开始。令人吃惊的是这些归纳宇宙的浩大工程是
如此吸引人,直到今天世界各地还仍然有人继续这个工程。从某种观点来看,这又是
一个注定要彻底失败的工程,因为这样的工程永远不能产生一个结论。
在阿姆斯特丹,林奈结识的一位志同道合的富有的自然史家Johan Burman,他答应
帮助林奈出版Systema naturae(1735),书的手稿是林奈从瑞典带来的。
Title page of Systema Naturae, Leiden, 1735.
John Gronovius and Scots doctor Isaac Lawson, generouly offered to have
it printed at their own expense.
01 – Leiden 1735 Linnæus, C. 1735.
02 – Stockholm 1740 Linnæus, C. 1740.
03 – Halle 1740 Lange, J. J. 1740.
04 – Paris 1744 Linnæus, C. 1744.
05 – Halle 1747 Agnethler, M. G. 1847.
06 – Stockholm 1748 Linnæus, C. 1748.
07 – Leipzig 1748 Linnæus, C. 1748.
08 – Stockholm 1753 Haartman, J. J. 1753.
09 – Leiden 1756 Linnæus, C. 1756.
10 Vol. 1 – Stockholm 1758 Linnæus, C. 1758.
10 Vol. 2 – Stockholm 1759 Linnæus, C. 1759.
11 Vol. 1 – Halle 1760 Linnaeus, C. 1760.
12 Vol. 1 part 1 – Stockholm 1766 Linné, C. a 1766.
12 Vol. 1 part 2 – Stockholm 1767 Linné, C. a 1767.
12 Vol. 2 – Stockholm 1767 Linné, C. a 1767.
12 Vol. 3 – Stockholm 1768 Linné, C. a 1768.
12a ("13") Vol. 1 part. 1 – Wien 1767 Linné, C. a 1767.
12a ("13") Vol. 1 part 2 – Wien 1767 Linné, C. a [1767].
12a ("13") Vol. 2 – Wien 1770 Linné, C. a 1770.
12a ("13") Vol. 3 – Wien 1770 Linnaeus, C. 1770.
12b Vol. 1 – Göttingen 1772 Beckmann, J. 1772.
12b Vol. 2 – Göttingen 1772 Beckmann, J. 1772.
13 Vol. 1 part 1 – Leipzig 1788 Gmelin, J. F. 1788.
13 Vol. 1 part 2 – Leipzig [1789] Gmelin, J. F. [1789].
13 Vol. 1 part 3 – Leipzig [1789] Gmelin, J. F. [1789].
13 Vol. 1 part 4 – Leipzig [1790] Gmelin, J. F. [1790].
13 Vol. 1 part 5 – Leipzig [1790] Gmelin, J. F. [1790].
13 Vol. 1 part 6 – Leipzig [1791] Gmelin, J. F. [1791].
13 Vol. 1 part 7 – Leipzig [1792] Gmelin, J. F. [1792].
13 Vol. 2 part 1 – Leipzig 1791 Gmelin, J. F. 1791.
13 Vol. 2 part 2 – Leipzig [1791]?
13 Vol. 3 – Leipzig 1793
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae The dates of publication for Gmelin's edition were the following:
Part 1: pp. [1–12], 1–500 (25 July 1788)
Part 2: pp. 501–1032 (20 April 1789)
Part 3: pp. 1033–1516 (20 November 1789)
Part 4: pp. 1517–2224 (21 May 1790)
Part 5: pp. 2225–3020 (6 December 1790)
Part 6: pp. 3021–3910 (14 May 1791)
Part 7: pp. 3911–4120 (2 July 1792)
倘若说有典型的“林奈式的工程”这个概念的话,那就是这本书的出版与运行,再版更
新。书的排版极不寻常--夹有大幅的图表,这本身就很了不起。System naturae
最初的想法是做一本包括许多可以钉在墙上的“地图”,这些地图笼括自然界的三大王
国,从庞大的单位到渺小的个体。林奈经常用这种军事地图的形式展现他的系统:
自然如同社会一样包括国家,省,县,乡等层层机构,直到最底层,从那个招募到士
兵的每户家庭。林奈成长在瑞典兵荒马乱的战争年代,用战争做比喻对他来说并不勉
强,这倒不是是他本人对那已经衰弱的帝国有什么缠绵情感,而是他的精神世界几乎
是强迫性地用全局观和秩序控制着。曾有个比喻说林奈是“花卉女神军队的将军”,
这是对林奈的一个恰如其分的描写,尽管女神一词多少为整个概念增添了一些和平的
色彩。
林奈科学理论的出发点是分类和命名,divisio et denominatio,即将自然分割装
入大小不同的盒子,再将这些盒子贴上标签并整理出来。在分类中林奈取了植物的
性征--这一早在十七世纪后期被发现但还远远没有被广泛接受的概念。人们可对林
奈表现出的对大自然中随处发生的繁殖和再生,包括纯洁的花朵都在进行的游戏的
着迷进行深一层的分析。那就是除了林奈迷恋做大自然 中的窥视者这一最表层的原
因外,还可以追溯期间的宗教动机:即大自然在造物主的鼓励下进行自身的繁殖与
再生。对于林奈来说后者才是最重要的任务,是将生命的多重性保持下去的原因。
他热衷于将植物和人类的共性进行比较也是基于自然的简单层次的理论。另外一个
灵感可能来自炼金术--一种自然科学中金属的交配繁衍,这同林奈对植物的看法很
相似。植物也庆祝婚礼,它们通过各种变幻的形式咏叹着生命的继续,时而是开放
的显花植物门,时而是秘密的隐花植物门。
从不同的角度出发,动物分类标准有很多:例如四足动物,或是被林奈称为哺乳动
物是根据它们乳房的数目和所在的方位,矿石的分类是根据他们外在的特徵而不
是它们的化学组成。矿石同植物和动物一样依照林奈式的系统结构自上而下的排列
为:界Regnum,纲Classis,目ordo,种genus,类species,开始时不同物种都
被起冗长的名字,但自1753年《植物的类》和1758年《自然系统》发表后,林奈
的“双名法”开始成为自然研究领域的模式了。银莲花的拉丁语名字仍然为
Anemone nomorosa,家猫也仍然叫Felis domestica,但在它们的名字后面都
加上一个字母L.,用以标志它们的命名者。
在林奈科学中有不少专门术语,不是为了故弄玄虚,恰恰相反,是将物种命名简化
到如同一个讲究的爱好而已。而同时,对物种的命名对认识和掌握大自然却有着不
可限量的贡献。毕竟,了解到物种的名字不是件简单的事情。
在最新版本的《自然系统》中,林奈囊括了造物间所有的物种,上至宇宙星辰,下
至微观微生物,外星球虽然只有提及的必要,但仍然不可否认其做为一个框架的意
义。林奈对各物种的认真程度显然不一,例如他对昆虫有透彻的了解,而对隐花植
物门只知道个大概。从星辰起步,林奈眺越着绘了整个自然界诞生和发展地过程,
他更看中发展中的多元化,但有时不免缺乏正确的过渡。事实上,林奈理论中存在
着一个根本的问题 ,那就是他在寻找差距的同时也在寻找联系,既是“梯子”又是“链
条”。前者更适应传统的宗教所强调的人类优等论,而后者则更能反映那个时代的
精神。随着一种新的认知论和众多自然科学历史上的新发现,标志着人类对自然长
久以来的认识无论从哲学意义还是自然科学意义上都遭受着空前的挑战。十七世纪
英国哲学家洛克提出的本质论和一系列新的边缘生物有机体的发现,例如水螅,珊
瑚和灵长类,都在撞击着传统认识。
十八世纪一个最受欢迎的理论是自然是一个大链条,对林奈来说这个理论变得尤其
重要。他认为造物是按照等级进行的,人是这个进程中的最高等级。林奈将人类同
猿猴放置在发展进程的同一个等级,这在当时来说是惊世之举。1758年林奈将人类
命名为智人Homo sapiens,等级:Primates,灵长目。林奈认为自然的链条是自上
而下连接在一起的,因而他煞费苦心地通过文学和其他 同事的发现寻找着次人类。
为此,他不惜被所谓的有人捕到美人鱼的报告欺骗,还写下了他是如何向往能亲自
检查这只美人鱼。对于那些所谓发现长尾巴的半人类和猿猴人的故事他也信以为真,
这样的荒诞发现竟然在他的《自然系统》中被冠以山洞人Homo trolodytes和长
臂猿人Homo lar。由此可见林奈为公正地展现自然的多元化和关联性方面的努力,
这两个特点不仅同自然科学的研究发展是一致的,同时也展现造物主的智慧和慷慨
。林奈的做法可谓是超前的达尔文,不含偏见同时又充满偏见。
林氏工程由此可以开始了。林奈著作中的章程定义已经到位,其目的是可以盘点和
归纳整个宇宙的物种,余下的便是如何组织它们了。
to be continued...
- posted on 11/25/2010
荷兰是出书者的天堂,那年代英国人、法国人、德国甚至西班牙人都到此出书,此包
括前叙的John Ray,早先的笛卡儿,托玛斯摩尔,伊拉斯莫,新教徒、清教徒,天
主教世界的危险信徒,甚至虔诚的天主教徒--艺术家、思想家、科学家等等,罗列
不够。荷兰有发达的商业,相应的信息与文化教育一直在当时称雄。
当然彼荷兰未必是此荷兰,当时欧洲国家与地域不象今天这样分明。荷兰自西班牙独
立,(跨时漫长的独立战争,把西班牙帝国磨损掉了,成为海上一霸,直到后来为英
国所取代)为新教世界不可多得,响应的自然是所有北欧国家,这个在血脉上不用多
说。记得英国人有人称许Viking(具体称Norman)对他们的入侵,血洗亮了眼睛,不
管是凯尔特还是天主教的眼睛,古罗马早已为陈迹。中世纪的北欧无论文化艺术都
很落后,一般人责怪天主教会,但北欧人特有的血气方刚,自然没有被染没掉的眼
光。说中世的艺术都程式化,风格化了,最可怕的是Arabesque,什么人都是一样面
孔,什么植物都是一样的枝叶。这样说就有点中国格式,中国画的风格也够程式化,
风格化,人都无须张开眼睛。
说此毒源于圣奥古斯忽略外在,内在之眼,上帝之光万现。中国佛教也这种情趣,而
一般世大夫果然也是重务虚,轻实在。自孔子轻农耕起,轻视象韩愈师说里提的巫医
乐师百工之人,更轻视具体认识自然万象。一直说儒家轻视妇女与孩童,管他有多少
误解与短视,这造成的事实。西方也是,治病是大事,而解草药的书都是传抄,图转
版久了就风格程式化了,谁也不认识是什么植株。大学者纷纷考据,但很少人亲身实
践。医生谈得头头是道,具体拿药还得靠药剂师,药剂师也放不下身架,最后辨认采
药的还是乡村老妇老农与女药巫,这是不是短视?这样的短视很快就避免了,也是欧
洲贵族起的首,放下身架,亲身实验并引为荣,成为南北文艺复兴及启蒙时代的一种
风气。这些与人本身气血与眼光分不开,这些本身的自然的东西至少还没有被文化陈
迹淹没掉。
林奈《自然系统》的发表,也承载着欧洲社会的这种全面的认识的热情。当然,两位
赞助人John Gronovius, Isaac Lawson他怎么会忘记?感恩,西方人说是智慧的开
始。林奈感恩的方式是献书(他多次称献诗,可惜诗不能),最独特的他本行能力所及,
称献植物名:
Gronovia scandens, Gronovia, Loasaceae, 刺莲花科
Lawsonia inermis, Lawsonia ,千屈菜科,中文'指甲花'
林奈以后的出版的路子一帆风顺,似乎林奈的名字与出版紧密联系,能出版林奈自然
了不起。每一本书都是个里程碑,我还是搁着慢叙,先把他好友Peter Artedi的事
叙述完毕。自从林奈早先把他介绍给Saba写Thausarus后,Artedi一直在荷兰工作,
并写作自己的鱼类学大作。后世有人把他当鱼类学之父,估计还是托了林奈Systema
Naturae的光。
1735年9月27日,Artedi应邀与Saba晚餐,晚餐会闹得很晚才散,在回路上因为对
阿姆斯特丹不熟悉,走迷失了,不幸掉到运河里淹死掉了。
When I saw the stiff and lifeless body, the livid, pale and foam-flecked lips;
when I thought of the loss of so old and excellent a friend and remembered
the sleepless nights, the laborious days, the journeys, the midnight hours of
exhausting study which had preceded his attainment of that learning in which
he had no rival to fear - then I burst into tears. And when I foresaw that all
this scholarship, which should have earned immortality for him and glory for
his country, would perish with his death, then the love which I will felt for
my friend commanded that the pledge we had once made - that the survivor
would give to the world that observations of the other - must be honoured.
林奈失去了志同道合的同学,来自同国的知己好友,林奈到拉普兰一行还到Artedi
家拜访过。这一回也是在荷兰客栈巧遇,其时都在穷困之际,林奈会好一点。才上
了路子Artedi就这样献身到他衷爱的鱼的世界中去。Artedi没有留下任何画像,这里
有一段林奈与他初次见面时对他的描绘:
I saw before me a tall, slim young man with long black hair, whose features
reminded me of John Ray's. He gave me the impression of being modest and
not over-hasty in forming an opinion, yet at the same time he seemed alert,
determined and mature - a man of old-fashioned integrity and honour. I was
delighted to find that we immediately started talking about stones, plants
and animals, and I was much touched at his confiding in me, at our very first
meeting and with great frankness, so many of his observations in the field
of science. I wanted his friendship; and not only did he give it to me, but
he also promised me his help whever I needed it - a promise that he faithfully
kept. This sacred friendship grew steadily during our seven years in Uppsala.
He was my dearest, my most intimate friend.
这样林奈得承诺他们沉重的约定,一生独干。眼前他得料理Artedi的后事,Artedi
家里答应他拥有Artedi的一切遗物,但房东不答应给,因为拖欠的房租,并准备将之
拍卖。林奈无可奈何,Saba只答应付Artedi的丧葬费,50florins,不再多,有人说
他暗指望能通过拍卖得到Artedi的遗稿。这时林奈新交的主Clifford来搭救了。
George Clifford是一位英国住荷兰的富商,富甲天下,林奈又得到好运气,给他当
医生兼管花园图书馆。Clifford怎么个富?就说荷兰东印度公司的老总吧。以后三年
林奈在荷兰的路子都与他关系紧密,此再叙。眼前林奈得帮Artedi整理出版他的重要
著作《鱼类学》Ichthyologia(The Natural History of Fishes):
I am now employed in printing the posthumous works of my late friend Peter
Artedi, in which, if I mistake not, you will se more perfection than can be
expected in botany for a hundred years to come. He has established natural
classes [orders], natural genera, complete characters, a universal index of
synonyms, incomparable descriptions and unexceptionable specific definitions.
以后,林奈在Artedi钟爱的伞形科(也是他早先分得的唯一植物类)中给了Artedi一个
献名:
Artedia squamata, Artedia, Apiaceae(Umbelliferae), 中文'冠花'
&
Peter Artedi or Petrus Arctaedius (February 22, 1705 – September 27, 1735)
was a Swedish naturalist and is known as the "father of Ichthyology."http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Artedi
Here lies poor Artedi, in foreign land pyx'd
Not a man nor a fish, but something betwixt,
Not a man, for his life among fishes he past,
Not a fish, for he perished by water at last. -- epitaph by George Shaw
to be continued...
- posted on 11/26/2010
xw wrote:
中世纪的北欧无论文化艺术都
很落后,一般人责怪天主教会,但北欧人特有的血气方刚,自然没有被染没掉的眼
光。说中世的艺术都程式化,风格化了,最可怕的是Arabesque,什么人都是一样面
孔,什么植物都是一样的枝叶。这样说就有点中国格式,中国画的风格也够程式化,
风格化,人都无须张开眼睛。
这也不只天主教会或中国,任何有势力的意识形态都会对艺术表现产生影响。古希腊罗马雕塑中的女性形象有近600年的时间是所有女性雕塑都长着几近相同的面孔,因为social norms对女性的要求和想象是一个模子。 - posted on 11/26/2010
那时科学界共通语(Lingua franca)是拉丁,不是古典拉丁,与教堂拉丁会近些,更
是神学哲学以至科学拉丁。牛顿用是的拉丁,康德也精通拉丁,巴赫还在学校教拉
丁语。虽然这Lingua franca会有南腔北调,东西混杂不清,但于自然史一域确是统
一的。这对林奈这样的不喜欢学习外语(或学外语能力差)的人就够了。他只要一门
拉丁语,幸好日耳曼语系德语荷兰丹麦挪威区别不大,英语就大多了,以后他在英
国一个月几乎是花园中躲过来的。虽然,他也拉普兰回程中被芬兰语难倒过。拉丁
语特别适合时流交汇,启蒙时代,科学发展涌越。现在,似乎又成了语言的巴别塔,
没有了Lingua franca。最近天主教堂复兴拉丁弥撒,好在科学界还有植物拉丁,虽
然真明白书写的人不多,但能阅读交流也是天赐之福。好在,最近细菌学界又重新
启用林奈式的双名法Binomial nomenclature:
双名法,又称学名、二名法,生物学上对生物种类的命名规则。每个物种命名的名
字有两部分构成:属名和种加词(种小名)。属名须大写,种加词则不能。在印刷
时使用斜体,或是用加底线的方式取代。例如:Homo sapiens(即智人)。简化
如下:
Homo sapiens(种名) = Homo(属名) + sapiens(种加词)
如果在一篇文章中多次提到某一个属,除第一次提及时给出全写,在以后出现时可
将属名缩写,但绝不能省略,例如Homo sapiens缩写为 H. sapiens。在很少的一
些情况下,由于一个物种已经广为人知,所以其缩写形式就约定成俗了。如在细菌
中,Escherichia coli(大肠杆菌)可以缩写成E. coli而不会引起误会。
这样,同样的名称在所有语言中通用, 避免了翻译的困难; 任何的一个物种都可以明
确无误的由两个单词确定; 本系统已经在植物学 (始于 1735), 动物学 (始于 1758)
和细菌学 (始于 1980)中广泛应用。
二名法不是林奈发明,但于林奈关系紧密,此可见上面的两个里程碑式的年代:1735,
1758,都与上列Systema Naturae有关。
虽然,早在林奈两百年前地Bauhin兄弟就发明了这种方法,只是没有贯彻与普及,
因为系统还不具模型,具体样本不够,植物形态学与生理物理认识都不够详细与深
入。再以前Cesalpino, Fuchs和Brunfels偶尔也用,就是植物学鼻祖Theophrastus
也不是没有。因为这样称符合交流习俗与人名,简单直接,可惜不坚持就乱了套:
Scholars of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries had drifted
away from the short, sharp binomial towards much longer polynomial tags
that tried to pin down the exact, distinguishing chrateristics of the plant
in question. In one way that was useful. A name such as 'Plantago foliis
ovato-lanceolatis pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti' tells that
this is a plantain with ovate lanceolate leaves becoming softly hairy, a
cylindrical head and a smooth stem. But it doesn't fit mouth as comfortably
as Plantago media - hoary plantain.
再又说到通俗名称的不足,虽然会自然渊源一些,或许诗意,但交流有碍。Anna
Pavord在THE NAMING OF NAMES书中提的这一段有趣:
When, in 1892, Nathaniel Colgan of Dublin tried to establish the true identity
of shamrock, patriotic Irishmen from twenty different counties inundated
him with plants. Some sent white clover, some red, some sent lesser yellow
trefoil, some spotted medick. No one sent wood sorrel, which in England
is sometimes called shamrock.
这个我以前咖啡里提过,Shamrock更是Wood sorrel(中文酢浆草)。此不是英文现
称的Clover,艾米丽钟情的Purple clover,中文译车轴,拉丁属名倒还真是Trifolium
,三叶。我原先把印刷品当错,看来是我错了。爱尔兰三叶草也可是酢浆草!
Oxalis acetosella L., Otto Wilhelm Thomé Flora von Deutschland Österreich
und der Schweiz (1885)
Shamrock, Wood sorrel, Irish Clover
White Clover, Trifolium repens L.
维基说The shamrock (♣) is a symbol of Ireland. It is a three-leafed old white
clover. It is sometimes of the variety Trifolium repens (white clover, Irish:
seamair bhán) but today usually Trifolium dubium (lesser clover, Irish: seamair
bhuí). However, other three-leafed plants—such as Medicago lupulina,
Trifolium pratense, and Oxalis—are sometimes designated as shamrocks.
此即有三四种完全不同植物的混同,好在于传统,爱尔兰人也感性十足,只管唱歌跳
舞喝碑酒,上个世纪迷上了革命……Anna Pavord下一段叙述,更是点出了通俗名称
的要害与不足:
A widespread flower such as marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) has about
sixty common names in France, another eighty in Britain, and at 140 in
Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
在此我还要把英语通俗名词的歧视性提一下,以前说过,许多冠以Virgin's, Lady's等
圣母名称等花卉植株原都是有女性性指代成份的,以后被天主基督教统一规化过来了。
但文化歧视无处不在,比如英文中冠以Spanish, Irish, Indian, Eskimos's等的名称,
就有明显笑话人不分龙蛇的感觉。还有甚至Dutchman's, Chinese, Cherokee等的
也只略好一些。通俗名称笑话别人总把别人当无知,这除了政治因素以外,这些是我
的想法。
此贴聊及语言,植物拉丁的由来与必要性,双名法,与林奈的关系。我再提一桩逸事,
就是通常称的Last rose of summer,一首有名的爱尔兰歌,以至于置入德语名歌剧
Martha,以后又被电影扩广无界可及的。此中的花,夏日最后一朵玫瑰,原来是一种
菊:Michaelmas Daisy的通俗名,够诗意!Michaelmas Day是英伦诸岛盛夏后丰
收之节日。
Aster spp., Michaelmas Daisy, Last Rose of Summer
to be continued...
- posted on 11/29/2010
我想在林奈游学期间多着点笔墨,因为这里涉及的内容比较理想青春,有激情,地
域视野也广,涵盖一整个欧洲启蒙时代。欧洲的启蒙时代一直是我心向往之的时代
,上回赤道国的贴子提到康达明(Charles Marie de La Condamine )。文艺复兴,
Conquistador及大殖民时代说心里话,还相当野蛮,与那种一门心思十字军东侵
没什么两样,虽然有或有思想上的清明。但十八世纪以后欧洲人才能正视别人,向
往知识,总比殖民掠侵要文明。。林奈与Clifford相遇很有趣,人们戏说,Clifford
用一本珍藏书,就从Burmann那时换取了林奈:
However, while they were looking round Clifford's library Burman noticed
a splendid book that he had not seen before: the second volume of Sloane's
'Natural History of Jamaica'. It was obvious to Clifford that he coveted it.
'I happen to have two copies,' he told Burmann. 'I will give you one if you
will let me have Linnaeus.'
So on 24 September Linaaeus, barted as it were for a book, was installed
at the Hartekamp(George Clifford's private Garden&Zoo).
注一下,1727年牛顿爵士逝后,SLOANE, Sir HANS (1660–1753), 被选为英国
皇家学会主席,一直任到1741年。
Burmann前面也只淡淡提过,是林奈先前结识的只长他一岁的阿姆斯特丹植物园园长
。林奈《自然系统》发表后,手头更短,思衬着回国去,况且,Cleas已在瑞典预备
了给他的欢迎费。林奈去意已定,按Liber Amicorum里的自叙:
Even though the earth should disintegrated and stagger its course, even
then the fearless man, though the falling ruins might strike him down, will
remain undaunted. Adversity is conquered by learning to live with it! Leave
you home for foreign lands, and a new life will then begin for you. But
never bow before adversity. You name will travel from the farthest banks
of the Danube to the frozen North......
Boerhaave竭力挽留,并许诺他开普顿的植物行,公费到美洲采集植物,回来后可在
Leiden大学任教授职。林奈说自己生于北寒国,不太适应炎热地带,这个果然是。以
后他的不少瑞典弟子都死于热病,多是旧大陆、新大陆亚热带、热带植物探险行,东
印度、西印度,寒带要好得多!因为回国要经过阿姆斯特丹,Boerhaave让他再拜访
植物园的Burmann:
Burmann produced a specimen of a rare plant for him to identify. Linnaeus
moistened it in his mouth and proclaimed it a Laurus.
'No, it is not a Laurus,' Said Burmann.
'Yes; a Laurus - and a cinnamomum.'
'A cinnamonum, admittely - but ....'
林奈提出这两个属类可以合并,都属于樟科(Lauraceae)。以后植物学家找出更新的
理由,还是将之分开成两个属。
两个植物学家再谈即合,其时Burmann正在编写Thesaurus Zeylanicus(锡兰博物
库),需要帮助,又提供林奈食宿,象以往一样。林奈答应在此过一个冬天,同时也得
到Burmann帮助,把手头的Fundamenta botanica和Bibliotheca Botanica完稿。
后一本书,林奈是题献给Burmann的。前面说林奈出版的顺利,也是来年的事,一七
三六年,他出版了这两本植物书,第二本至今植物学家依旧案头必备。
1735, Systema Naturae, 《自然体系》
1736, Fundamenta botanica, 《植物学基础》
1736, Bibliotheca botanica, 《植物学名录》
Title page of Linnaeus’s Bibliotheca Botanica, 1736.
The Bibliotheca is a concise history of botany in a dry, enumerative, but
very efficient style. Linnaeus describes the development of botanical science
by subdividing the authors in various categories and by adding several
statements on the main events in human affairs without which the growth
of botany as a science cannot be understood. The often enlightening and
amusing names for the various categories of botanists show not only a good
knowledge of the literature, but also an awareness of the fact that botanical
history is human history.
在荷兰,林奈的出版著作名录很长,再列几本一七三七/八年的有:
1736, Musa Cliffortiana, 《克里福特的香蕉》
1737, Critica Botanica, 《植物命名》
1737, Flora Lapponica, 《拉普兰植物志》
1737, Genera botanica, 《植物种属》
1737, Viridiarum Cliffortianum, 《克里福特的谐谑园》
1737, Hortus Cliffortianus, 《克里福特的花园》
1738, Classes plantarum seu Systemata Plantarum omnia a Fructificatione
desumpta, 《植物的纲》
1738, Ichthyologia, 《鱼类学》(with Peter Artedi)
Clifford was an enormously rich, fifty-year-old Anglo-Dutch financier and a
director of Dutch East India company. He was also an enthusiastic horticulturist
and zoologist, and his garden and private zoo at Hartekamp, his country
estate about five miles from Haarlem on the way to Leiden, were famous
throughout Holland; their upkeep was said to cost their owner no less than
12000 gulden a year. On 13 Aug. 1735 Linnaeus went with Burmann to the
Hartekamp.
林奈当然早闻这位富豪的花园:鱼池、假山、雕塑、还有动物园。他后来发表的Hortus
Cliffortianus(1738)《克里福特的花园》中他如是记叙:Masterpieces of Nature aided
by Art,,,Shady walks, topiary, statues, fishponds, artificial mounds and mazes.
动物园:full of tigers, apes, wild dogs, indian deer and goats, peccaries and African
swines,,, and innumerable varieties of birds...that made the garden echo and
re-echo with their cries. 关于Hothouses(house of Adonis):
the flora of Spain, southern France, Italy, Sicily and the Isles of Greece. In
the second, treasures from Asia such as cloves, poincianas, mangosteens, coco-
palms...In the third the plants of Africa, plants whose structure was unique
and their nature indeed monstrous, such as mesembryanthemums and aloes
of many different kinds, carron flowers, euphorbias, crassula and protea species
...In the fourth our beloved Americans, all the progeny of the New World:
innumberable cacti; orchids, passion flowers, magnolias and tulip trees; the
calabash tree, acacias, tamarinds and peppers...Among these rioted the earth's
strangest wonders: bananas, exquisite hermannias, silver-leaved protects and
valuable camphor-trees.
Hortus Cliffortianus, dat.1737, pub.1738, Carl Linnaeus and Georg D. Ehret
to be continued...
- posted on 11/30/2010
克利福特对林奈分类印度植物的能力惊叹:都是头一回见识,他只要打开花,检查花
内部的结构就判定类属。林奈也羡慕他这世界一流的花园、温室还有图书馆以及植物
标本收藏。Boerhaave原来是Clifford的私人医生,这回林奈终于被荷兰挽留,又说
是Gronovius从中作了媒介。青年林奈禁不住花园诱惑,当了克利福特的私人护士兼
管植物园,图书馆。克利福特跟林奈一样激动--Captivated as I was by these
delights, stuck fast on these Siren-rocks, you bade me lower my sails; and
you prevailed without any difficulty.
这才产生了上一贴提到的用珍版书挽林奈的一幕。原因是林奈已答应在Burmann食宿
过一冬,这回克利福特要人,林奈两边磨不过,还是克利福特机灵,面子也大。
一七三五年九月廿四日,林奈进了克利福特的豪宅花园,Hartekamp。管理花园温室
且将植物标本分类记录,并留意Clifford的身体,年薪1000florins。林奈答应过一冬,
结果拖成了三年,过得象一位王子一样。他可以随意买想要的书以充实图书馆,订购
花园或温室桔园所需的植物。有大量的时间,大量的参考书写自己的著作,最后,用
植物学行话比喻:他真可谓In clover!
He lived in all the comfort that a mortal could wish: he traveled to Leyden to
hear Boerhaave; he drove in a coach and four along the streets of Amsterdam;
he could go to Amsterdam whenever he chose or could linger in the beautiful
gardens at Hartekamp entirely according to his whim; he was served by a cook and
servants and could receive guests at any time in magnificent circumstances.
林奈在花园里一项名举就是把花园里的香蕉培植开了花,结了果。这在当时北欧不可
思议,林奈模拟香蕉热带的生态环境,重施肥,有时让香蕉干旱一阵子,再浇很多
水,仿佛热雨林。这样香蕉花就催开了,结了果,这天大的新闻引得许多人来朝,
Boerhaave从老远赶来观摩,林奈为此写了一本《里利福特的香蕉》的小册子。以后
林奈在自己的家乡也培植成功了香蕉。香蕉这个学名,Musa源于古罗马奥古斯都的
医生Antonius Musa,这是林奈的说法。
Musa Paradisiaca L, Georg Dionysius Ehret
在克利福特花园,一日,有一位德国青年自然画家Georg Dionysius Ehret徒步而来,
他是那个时代最富盛名的自然图绘师。一则为花园,二则为林奈,Ehret向Clifford展
示自己的画作,因为珍贵,都被Clifford高价买下了。林奈向他展示自己的新分类法,
深受启发,并且作画示意,上面那幅著名的二十四纲图就是他的。以后林奈写《克利
福特花园》,用了他不少画作,他的植物画,确实当世一流,有丢勒的承继:
During the time I was with Mr Clifford I was treated courteously. I did not
then know that Linnaeus intended to publish a Hortus Cliffortianus. Linnaeus
and I were the best of friends: he showed me his new method of examining
the stamens, which I easily understood, and privately resolved to bring out
a Tabella of it. As my work with Mr Clifford was now coming to an end, I
returned to Leiden and published the plate....With this Tabella I once more
earned some money; for I sold it at two Dutch gulden a piece and almost
all the botanists in Holland bought it of me.
Ehret以后到英国定居,名声大震。那时候英国文化比欧陆还是次一筹,比如享德尔,
海顿到英国掏金,就象后来英国人到美国掏金。以前说文化与商业的必然关系,这个放
在德国与法国倒未必精确,比如德国三十年战争后一向贫弱,但文化上并不示弱!
我再上两幅Georg Dionysius Ehret的植物图绘,以享看官:
The deep-purple Lilac, by G. D. Ehret
Georg Dionysius Ehret, Ketmia(Hibiscus cannabinus), Iris and Alsine
此后,林奈也随着Ehret的脚步,也许是Artedi把英国吹得天花烂坠,动了林奈的心
思。林奈到英国去,可不是掏金,况且他英文不灵通。文化交流有份,也替Hartekamp
搜集新植物,一切费用克利夫特承担,只是不要逗留太长。这点跟享德尔不一样,享
德尔向大公请长假,一溜到英国就不回头了,好在后来汉诺威大公脱身成了英国乔治
一世,追到伦敦,享德尔赶紧写水上音乐、焰火音乐拍马屁,说道歉也是,还编辑英
国国歌,这些都成了英国礼乐的珍品!扯远了。。。
这条线也拉扯得够长,二十四个贴子,可以喘一口气,换条线再叙!
to be continued, with another line... thx - posted on 12/10/2010
鼓聲餘音裊裊,Mari Boine的“生”鏈接卻不work了。 :(
北極花極清雅.
另, 請教xw, 極地"石南"同"石楠"是兩樣的嗎?
xw wrote:
New scenes his raptur'd sight surveys
Amid Lapponia's peaceful soil;
And while with ardent zeal he strays
Fair science crowns his pleasing toil.
前面以拉普兰鼓作引。鼓也敲过了,还得献上一朵花,什么花呢?还得是他钟爱的
北极花:
Linnaea borealis - Twinflower
The small, red and white flower of Lapland was to become Linnaeus's favourite.
Linnaeus compared it to himself, with uncharacteristic modesty, as lowly and
insignificant.
Through many a forest dark and drear,
O'er many a desert's trackless side,
With fearless foot he ranges round
With Heaven and Nature for his guide.
林奈去拉普兰,却钟意这么丁点一棵藤蔓状小花,并以此自比。本来,人的生命都
很卑微,而极地的植物,尤其珍稀!我也很喜欢极地植物,比如石南,蓍草等,都
那么样坚韧,面朝阳光时,依旧带笑,对生命与阳光充满感激。 - posted on 12/10/2010
Oh, that's a good one, a replacement is hard to dig,,,
遠山 wrote:应是区别,但日语汉字有混,导致台湾Traditional Chinese亦常混同。这个我在咖
鼓聲餘音裊裊,Mari Boine的“生”鏈接卻不work了。 :(
北極花極清雅.
啡里提过,这一线:
http://www.mayacafe.com/forum/topic1sp.php3?tkey=1243415537
另, 請教xw, 極地"石南"同"石楠"是兩樣的嗎?
谢谢远山放小电影!蛮好的。我写这么多,与影中有出入的是第一版《自然系统》他
说十一页,一般书中说十四页,我也没见过头版,听说只印了几十本,伦敦有回拍
卖一本上百万。但十四页,怕把封面都计上了吧,哪里有单页数的书呢。况且封面
也有内容,也很精彩!
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